Hunger Gap Research Articles

Consequences of intraspecific competition for floral resources in heterogeneous landscapes for eusocial bees

Agricultural intensification is widely recognised as a primary driver of pollinator loss, but the success of land-management actions designed to remediate its impact is often mixed. Payments to farmers to increase habitat connectivity or the availability of floral and nesting resources may only result in short-term gains or even unintended consequences. The reasons may lie in changes to interaction networks or competition intensity that remain poorly understood. Models of pollination service typically implicitly assume pollinator population dynamics are regulated by nest-site availability, even though empirical evidence suggests nest-site occupancy is likely at least in part dependent on floral resource availability. To investigate the consequences of competition for floral resources in coarse-grained agricultural landscapes we extended an established model for bees combining optimal foraging and population dynamics, to include new functions for floral resource depletion and realistic colony dynamics. We find that intra-specific competition occurs late in the season forcing bees to forage underutilised sites situated further towards their foraging range limits. A lower rate of energy acquisition ultimately limits the size of the colony peak and delays its timing. Consequently, competition for floral resources can limit population size and distribution while at the same time contributing to a more stable and efficacious pollination service. Although competition was not found to be important in nest-site establishment success, the effect of a hunger gap early in the season on nest-site occupancy indirectly influences competition later in the season leading to complex outcomes.

Review: All That She Carried: The Journey of Ashley’s Sack, a Black Family Keepsake, by Tiya Miles

Review: <i>All That She Carried: The Journey of Ashley’s Sack, a Black Family Keepsake</i>, by Tiya Miles

P10 Child Well-Being in the Context of Food Insecurity: A Nutritional Assessment of the Secret Meals for Hungry Children Program

<h3>Background</h3> In Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 19.8% of children currently experience food insecurity. To reduce the negative health outcomes associated with childhood food insecurity, West Alabama Food Bank (WAFB) distributes food to vulnerable children in elementary schools through their Secret Meals for Hungry Children program (SMP). This program ensures nutritional continuity over the weekend. There are no nutritional guidelines for the SMP meals; however, WAFB aims to provide food items based on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA). <h3>Objective</h3> The objective of this pilot study was to determine the degree to which the nutritional content of the food distributed in the SMP by WAFB meets the nutritional guidelines as outlined by the 2020-2025 DGA. <h3>Study Design, Setting, Participants</h3> This study implemented an exploratory research design via qualitative and quantitative methods, including photos and nutrition label content analysis. Two qualitative interviews were conducted with WAFB leadership to contextualize the SMP. <h3>Measurable Outcome/Analysis</h3> Carbohydrates, protein and sodium content for the items in the SMP bag were compared to the DGA for children 4-8 years of age to determine if the contents sufficiently supplemented daily recommendations. Semi-structured interviews were analyzed in NVivo 12® and themes were identified. <h3>Results</h3> All 3 measures of nutrition (carbohydrates, protein, and sodium) comprised 89%,78% and 68% of the recommended guidelines for a child 4-8 years of age, respectively. Two key themes arose from the interviews: SMP organization and SMP impact on children's level of food security and overall wellbeing. <h3>Conclusion</h3> The results indicate that the SMP, according to the DGA, fills the hunger gap for children experiencing food insecurity. SMP provisions were reported to improve overall behavior and functioning at school. These demonstrate the significance of supplemental meals with respect to enhancing behavioral and academic performance for children from vulnerable communities. The implementation of such programs may decrease inequities in learning and overall well-being.

Intrahousehold management and use of nutritional supplements during the hunger gap in Maradi region, Niger: a qualitative study

BackgroundNutritional supplements are used for preventing and treating childhood malnutrition. While there is a growing body of evidence on product efficacy, less emphasis has been placed on how they are perceived and used at the household level. Here, we report on the intrahousehold management of three different supplements (Ready to Use Supplementary food (RUSF), medium quantity lipid-based nutrient supplements (LNS-MQ) and Super Cereal Plus (SC+)) in the region of Maradi (Niger). The main objective of this study was to describe the use, consumption and perception of the three different nutritional products at the household level.MethodsThe study was conducted in the Madarounfa district in the region of Maradi (February – March 2012). Female caregivers were purposely selected from eligible households and invited to participate. Data were collected through focus group discussion and interviews and were analyzed using thematic content analysis.ResultsIn total, 114 caregivers participated. Three major themes were initially identified and included preparation and conservation; consumption and sharing practices as well as perception of impact. The data showed good acceptance at the household level including perceived benefits for the target children, health improvement, prevention of illness and malnutrition. Sharing and gifting at both household and community level were also reported.ConclusionsCaregivers displayed positive perceptions toward the investigated supplements. Patterns of actual management should be considered in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of future programs.

Impact of participatory sorghum breeding in Burkina Faso

An ex post analysis of the impact of research projects related to Participatory Breeding (PB) of sorghum in Burkina Faso was carried out in 2015 and 2016 using the “Impress” method developed by CIRAD. The sorghum PB approach emerged in Burkina Faso in the late 1990s as a response to the very low adoption of improved varieties released by the conventional breeding program. This approach represents a paradigm shift from a research approach focused solely on the development of “high-yielding varieties”, irrespective of the social context in which these varieties are to be used, towards the development of varieties, seed and their dissemination within a multi-stakeholder framework. The present study aims to assess the impact of the sorghum PB program and the activities related to seed production and dissemination carried out in Burkina Faso over a period of 20 years. Detailed mappings of the timeline and the actors that have been involved in the innovation process, as well as the impact pathway, have been established. The causal relationships between outputs, outcomes and impacts have been developed on the basis of 67 impact descriptors provided by research partners and beneficiaries during participatory workshops. Around thirty measurable impact indicators were assessed by means of individual or focus-group interviews and by means of secondary data sources. The three major outputs of the study were: the new improved varieties (IV) resulting from the PB actions; the mini-pack seed strategy; and the new skills acquired by the farmer organizations regarding sorghum improvement and certified seed production. The appropriation of these outputs by the farmer organizations not only brought structure to the experimentation networks, but also ensured the promotion and dissemination of the new varieties, and the establishment of a decentralised certified seed production scheme. One major positive impact was the significant increase in the use of sorghum IVs not only in the villages covered by the program but also in neighbouring areas. The expansion and performance of these new IVs has helped reduce the hunger gap while increasing the revenues of farmers involved in seed production. Furthermore, the research projects helped bring structure to the national seed sector as well as to the certified seed market, where the farmer seed production Unions consolidated by the PB projects now play an important role in the orientation of national legislation. The experimental method of impact assessment used in this analysis explores and makes visible the complex multidimensional and multi-stakeholder processes that have helped shape technological innovation and its impact on development. Such impact assessments can also elucidate the role of research in reinforcing the individual and collective capacities needed for innovating and testing out new technologies, that is, new varieties and seed production practices according to local constraints and/or opportunities.

Biting the Bullet: Dealing with the Annual Hunger Gap in the Alaotra, Madagascar

The hunger gap (the annual period of hardship when most crops are growing but not yet ready for harvest) remains a reality for many smallholder farmers throughout the globe. With a population largely relying on agriculture, and high poverty and malnutrition rates continuously afflicting the country, farmers in Madagascar are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of the hunger gap, further putting pressure on already fragile ecosystems. Using a case study in the Alaotra region, we examine the seasonal trends of climate and agricultural resource dynamics, as well as characterize farmers’ experiences of and strategies used in response to the hunger gap, in order to assess how conservation may better consider the hunger gap to align its objectives with local needs. Results show that farmers are vulnerable to climatic events during a large part of the year, exacerbating the impacts of the hunger gap. The hunger gap appears to have varying degrees of impact on communities around Lake Alaotra, linked to factors such as road quality and agrarian structures—for example, land tenure and size of parcels—contributing to growing environmental degradation. We end by discussing various past and present responses aimed at improving the resilience of farmers of the Alaotra region, including improved accessibility, agricultural intensification, and conservation agriculture.

Diversity of food systems for securing future food availability

We depict the different models of likely future value-chains for agro food sector. The starting points of the reflection are the main coming geo-physical constraints acknowledged by most scientists (rise of sea level; climatic disaster higher frequency; scarcity of concentrated energy and other material resources). Thus the effects of the coming changes (and especially the effects of the global warming) upon agriculture are a regular study topic, while the effects of the other constraints, and the likely evolutions of the food systems as a whole, remain quite overlooked. When the scarcity of resources becomes general (as it is the case for oil and minerals in the coming decades), the present value-chains may no longer function. We draw from these evidences to design 6 models of food value-chains (including farming, processing and delivery systems). We therefore describe the models : “Today” (any food, in-store selling everywhere, at any time); “Amazon” (any food, at home in metropoles, at any time); “Chariot” (mainly local food, in streets of cities and villages, seasonal products); “Roman villa” (local food, at farm, seasonal products); “Survival” (energetic food, specific location, in response to disasters or to “hunger gap”); “Exportation food” (spices, salt etc., at any time). Only the last four together will be frugal enough to be compliant with the future geo-physical constraints. We also explore some consequences in terms of the future way of life, around the topics of agricultural work and cities.

Malaria and malnutrition co-existence among under-five children of tribal dense regions of Odisha: a community based study

Background: “Malaria and malnutrition are closely related in the months of hunger gap when malnutrition is at its peak often coincides with rainy season when the number of malaria cases shoot up. The disease combines in a vicious circle. Children sick with malaria are more likely to become dangerously malnourished”. Severely malnourished children with malaria infection may have no fever, or be hypothermic. Proactive screening for malaria in severely malnourished children is needed even if the child has no symptoms of malaria. The objectives of the study were to estimate prevalence of “malaria and malnutrition” co-existence in under 5 children of tribal dense regions and to determine if any significant difference between this co-existent condition against the disease alone.Methods: Eight villages were selected based on their inaccessibility and demography spread across Bamnipal and Sukinda region. Malaria testing using antigen based RDK and nutritional assessment using MUAC tapes were conducted in of 6 months to &lt;5 yrs children.Results: A total of 224 children of under 5 yrs age group were screened. 50.4% of them were suffering from malaria, 38% of the children were at risk or suffering from severe acute malnutrition. Of the 113 children with malaria, 45% were having malnutrition. Out of 86 malnourished children 59% were diagnosed with malaria. 22.7% of children were found to have malaria and malnutrition together.Conclusions: Malaria and Malnutrition are co-existent and synergistic to each other.

Prevalence of acute malnutrition among children ages 6-59 months: Results from a baseline nutrition survey in North-Western Uganda

Background: Acute malnutrition is particularly important in humanitarian emergencies where sudden change of food availability or high disease burden can cause this form of malnutrition. Alliance Forum for Development Uganda received funding from World Food Program to implement MCHN and TSFP in refugee settlement areas in Koboko district, North-western Uganda. As part of the program, a baseline nutrition survey was conducted to fast track the progress and contribution of the project towards improving the nutritional wellbeing of the refugees and host communities. Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out in the month of August in two sub counties in Koboko district. The selection of the sub counties and parishes therein was purposive, while 18 villages in selected parishes were randomly selected. The participants were invited to come to the nearest screening post for anthropometric measurements. Anthropometric data was analyzed using ENA software. While Stata version 12 was used to execute statistical tests for association. Statistical tests were two-sided. Results: The prevalence of GAM was 5.6% (4.2-7.4 95% C.I.) and SAM was 1.1% (3.2-5.8 95% C.I.). GAM was higher among boys than in girls (7.7% vs. 3.9%). There were no statistically significant differences in prevalence of acute malnutrition by nationality (national: 8.7% vs. refugees: 6.2%, p=0.186). Low child birth weight was statistically associated with acute malnutrition (p=0.021). Severe acute malnutrition was more common among the age group 6-17 months (1.2%) and decreased with age. The prevalence of oedema was 0.6%. Conclusion: By WHO thresholds, our results indicate that global acute malnutrition is a moderate situation in the refugee areas of Koboko district and that GAM affects both refugees and host communities. We recommend a repeat of the survey during a period of hunger gap to give a year-round nutrition situation in Koboko district.

The REFANI-N study protocol: a cluster-randomised controlled trial of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of early initiation and longer duration of emergency/seasonal unconditional cash transfers for the prevention of acute malnutrition among children, 6–59 months, in Tahoua, Niger

BackgroundThe global burden of acute malnutrition among children remains high, and prevalence rates are highest in humanitarian contexts such as Niger. Unconditional cash transfers are increasingly used to prevent acute malnutrition in emergencies but lack a strong evidence base. In Niger, non-governmental organisations give unconditional cash transfers to the poorest households from June to September; the ‘hunger gap’. However, rising admissions to feeding programmes from March/April suggest the intervention may be late.Methods/designThis cluster-randomised controlled trial will compare two types of unconditional cash transfer for ‘very poor’ households in ‘vulnerable’ villages defined and identified by the implementing organisation. 3,500 children (6–59 months) and 2,500 women (15–49 years) will be recruited exhaustively from households targeted for cash and from a random sample of non-recipient households in 40 villages in Tahoua district. Clusters of villages with a common cash distribution point will be assigned to either a control group which will receive the standard intervention (n = 10), or a modified intervention group (n = 10). The standard intervention is 32,500 FCFA/month for 4 months, June to September, given cash-in-hand to female representatives of ‘very poor’ households. The modified intervention is 21,500 FCFA/month for 5 months, April, May, July, August, September, and 22,500 FCFA in June, providing the same total amount. In both arms the recipient women attend an education session, women and children are screened and referred for acute malnutrition treatment, and the households receive nutrition supplements for children 6–23 months and pregnant and lactating women. The trial will evaluate whether the modified unconditional cash transfer leads to a reduction in acute malnutrition among children 6–59 months old compared to the standard intervention. The sample size provides power to detect a 5 percentage point difference in prevalence of acute malnutrition between trial arms. Quantitative and qualitative process evaluation data will be prospectively collected and programme costs will be collected and cost-effectiveness ratios calculated.DiscussionThis randomised study design with a concurrent process evaluation will provide evidence on the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of earlier initiation of seasonal unconditional cash transfer for the prevention of acute malnutrition, which will be generalisable to similar humanitarian situations.Trial registrationISRCTN25360839, registered March 19, 2015.

Protecting child health and nutrition status with ready-to-use food in addition to food assistance in urban Chad: a cost-effectiveness analysis

BackgroundDespite growing interest in use of lipid nutrient supplements for preventing child malnutrition and morbidity, there is inconclusive evidence on the effectiveness, and no evidence on the cost-effectiveness of this strategy.MethodsA cost effectiveness analysis was conducted comparing costs and outcomes of two arms of a cluster randomized controlled trial implemented in eastern Chad during the 2010 hunger gap by Action contre la Faim France and Ghent University. This trial assessed the effect on child malnutrition and morbidity of a 5-month general distribution of staple rations, or staple rations plus a ready-to-use supplementary food (RUSF). RUSF was distributed to households with a child aged 6–36 months who was not acutely malnourished (weight-for-height > = 80% of the NCHS reference median, and absence of bilateral pitting edema), to prevent acute malnutrition in these children. While the addition of RUSF to a staple ration did not result in significant reduction in wasting rates, cost-effectiveness was assessed using successful secondary outcomes of cases of diarrhea and anemia (hemoglobin <110 g/L) averted among children receiving RUSF.Total costs of the program and incremental costs of RUSF and related management and logistics were estimated using accounting records and key informant interviews, and include costs to institutions and communities. An activity-based costing methodology was applied and incremental costs were calculated per episode of diarrhea and case of anemia averted.ResultsAdding RUSF to a general food distribution increased total costs by 23%, resulting in an additional cost per child of 374 EUR, and an incremental cost per episode of diarrhea averted of 1,083 EUR and per case of anemia averted of 3,627 EUR.ConclusionsAdding RUSF to a staple ration was less cost-effective than other standard intervention options for averting diarrhea and anemia. This strategy holds potential to address a broad array of health and nutrition outcomes in emergency settings where infrastructure is weak and other intervention options are infeasible in the short-term. However, further research is needed to establish the contexts in which RUSF is most effective and cost-effective in preventing acute malnutrition and morbidity among vulnerable children, compared to other options.

Mind the Hunger Gap: a review of malnutrition in the community

Malnutrition is known to affect over three million people in the UK, with 93% of these people living in the community setting. This is leading to escalating costs of over pound 13 billion to the NHS annually, which could simply be reduced by ensuring adequate nutritional screening followed by the provision of good nutrition and diet. As well as reducing costs this will improve quality of life for such patients. The British Dietetic Association has launched a campaign entitled 'Mind the Hunger Gap' to highlight the growing issue of malnutrition and to help address the problem. Community nurses have an important role to play in the prevention and treatment of malnutrition, and this article sets out some of the tools and strategies at their disposal.

From food aid to food security: the case of the Safety Net policy in Ethiopia

ABSTRACTEthiopia's Productive Safety Net Programme (PSNP) is an attempt to bring food security to 5 million people by providing them with social security to close the yearly hunger gap, coupled with development projects to lift them permanently out of poverty. The programme is an example of the new policy arrangements that aim to link relief to social security and development. This paper analyses the early implementation of the PSNP in two villages of the Amhara Region. The paper shows how the programme was in practice interpreted and used by local authorities to realise a related programme of voluntary resettlement, and how this locally changed the objective from helping the most vulnerable people, to reserving the benefits of the programme for the more affluent and economically potent households. It shows how local responses to food security policies were informed by institutional patterns, discourses about food insecurity and the articulation of policy with adjacent or past policy practices.

Bridging the hunger gap with cash transfers: experiences from Malawi

Food shortages have become a chronic feature of many sub-Saharan countries, not just because of bad weather but also because of increasing poverty levels. In economies that do not have government social-security programmes, humanitarian relief and safety-net initiatives are imperative to prevent mass starvation. This article discusses the implementation of a cash-for-work programme designed to bridge the hunger gap in Malawi, highlighting its value and drawing lessons for practitioners with regard to the various components of the programme such as design, targeting, and timing, as well as challenges.

Agronomic potential of “Dodzi”, an extra early-maturing maize cultivar

Production of short-cycle crop varieties reduces the risk of crop loss due to terminal droughts and ensures early harvest to fill the hunger gap. Two experiments were used to determine the yield potentials of elite extra-early (75- 80 days) maturing maize (Zea mays L.) varieties to recommend the best extra-early variety for commercial productionand use in Ghana. In the first experiment, two extra-early and eight early (90-95 days) maize varieties were evaluated in replicated field trials at 10 research stations in 1995 and 1996. In the second experiment, thetwo extra-early varieties, one recommended early variety, and the farmers’ check variety were evaluated at 38 and 28 farm sites in 1995 and 1996, respectively. Mean grain yields across the 10 on-station sites in 2 years were 3.5, 4.1, 4.6, and 3.4 t ha-1 for NAES EE W-SR (extraearly), NAES Pool 16 DT (extra-early), Dorke SR (early), and the farmers’ check variety, respectively. Mean yields of the four varieties across 66 farm sites in both years were 3.2, 3.4, 3.4, and 3.6 t ha-1, respectively. NAES EE W-SR was the earliest of all the varieties tested and the farmers’ variety was latest. Food preference tests showed that NAES EE W-SR was comparable to the farmers’ check variety in suitability for local dish preparations. The National Variety Release Committee subsequently approved and released NAES EE W-SR under the local name “Dodzi”. “Dodzi” is recommended for early planting and harvesting throughout Ghana.

Comparative Nitrogen fixation, native arbuscular mycorrhiza formation and biomass production potentials of some grain legume species grown in the iield in the Guinea Savanna Zone of Ghana

An on-station trial was conducted in the experimental field of Savanna Agricultural Research Institute at Nyankpala in the Northern Region of Ghana to assess the nitrogen fixation, native arbuscular mycorrhizal formation and biomass production potentials of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), devil-bean (Crotalaria retusa), Mucuna pruriens var. utilis(black and white types) and Canavalia ensiformis with maize (Dorke SR) as the reference crop using the total nitrogen difference (TND) method. Plants were fertilized with 40 kg P/ha and 30 kg K/ha at 2 weeks after planting and grown for 55 days after which they were harvested. The harvested biomass (separated into roots, stems and leaves) of eachcrop was oven-dried at 70 oC for 48 h to a constant weight. Cowpea and devil-bean produced approximately 5 and 6 t/ha biomass whereas Mucuna and Canavalia yielded about 2 t/ha biomass each. Although cowpea had the least number of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungal (AMF) spores in its rhizosphere, its roots were the most heavily colonized (34%) and M. pruriens recording below 5% colonization. Apart from C. ensiformis, the test legumes derived over 50% of their total accumulated N from the atmosphere with cowpea being the most efficient (90% Ndfa). Both N and Paccumulations were significantly higher in cowpea than the other legumes due to increased N concentration and dry matter accumulation, respectively. In all the legumes, there was a direct positive correlation between the extent of mycorrhiza formation, biological N fixation and total N uptake. It could, therefore, be concluded that the extensivemycorrhiza formation in cowpea and its high N2-fixing potential resulted in a high shoot N and P uptake leading to a comparatively better growth enhancement. Cowpea could, therefore, be the grain legume for consideration in the selection of a suitable legume pre-crop to cereals for the amelioration of the low fertility of the degraded soils of the Guinea savanna zone of Ghana, and also as a source of food to fill the hunger gap that precedes the growing season in the Northern Region of Ghana.

A Large-Scale Distribution of Milk-Based Fortified Spreads: Evidence for a New Approach in Regions with High Burden of Acute Malnutrition

BackgroundThere are 146 million underweight children in the developing world, which contribute to up to half of the world's child deaths. In high burden regions for malnutrition, the treatment of individual children is limited by available resources. Here, we evaluate a large-scale distribution of a nutritional supplement on the prevention of wasting.Methods and FindingsA new ready-to-use food (RUF) was developed as a diet supplement for children under three. The intervention consisted of six monthly distributions of RUF during the 2007 hunger gap in a district of Maradi region, Niger, for approximately 60,000 children (length: 60–85 cm). At each distribution, all children over 65 cm had their Mid-Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) recorded. Admission trends for severe wasting (WFH<70% NCHS) in Maradi, 2002–2005 show an increase every year during the hunger gap. In contrast, in 2007, throughout the period of the distribution, the incidence of severe acute malnutrition (MUAC<110 mm) remained at extremely low levels. Comparison of year-over-year admissions to the therapeutic feeding program shows that the 2007 blanket distribution had essentially the same flattening effect on the seasonal rise in admissions as the 2006 individualized treatment of almost 60,000 children moderately wasted.ConclusionsThese results demonstrate the potential for distribution of fortified spreads to reduce the incidence of severe wasting in large population of children 6–36 months of age. Although further information is needed on the cost-effectiveness of such distributions, these results highlight the importance of re-evaluating current nutritional strategies and international recommendations for high burden areas of childhood malnutrition.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccination in South Sudan: Benefit-Cost Analysis and Livelihoods Impact

A benefit-cost analysis of vaccination for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) was conducted in an area of South Sudan, which due to chronic conflict, had been subject to large-scale humanitarian assistance for many years. The study used participatory epidemiology (PE) methods to estimate the prevalence and mortality of acute and chronic FMD in different age groups of cattle, and the reduction in milk off-take in cows affected by FMD. The benefit-cost of FMD vaccination was 11.5. Losses due to the chronic form of FMD accounted for 28.2% of total FMD losses, indicating that future benefit-cost analyses for FMD control in pastoral and agropastoral areas of Africa need to consider losses caused by chronic disease. Participatory epidemiological methods were also used to assess the importance of milk in the diet of Nuer agropastoralists, and seasonal variations in diet in relation to cattle movements and FMD outbreaks. Marked seasonal variation in diet included a 'hunger gap' period during which households were highly dependent on milk as their main source of food. Outbreaks of FMD occurred immediately before this period of milk dependency, with chronic losses extending through this period and affecting human food security. The paper discusses the need and feasibility of mass vaccination and strategic vaccination for FMD in South Sudan. The paper also discusses the value of combining conventional benefit-cost analysis with livelihoods analysis to inform disease control efforts and funding commitments in humanitarian contexts.

Shift in thinking to address the 21st century hunger gap

Shift in thinking to address the 21st century hunger gap

The World Food Crisis

Abstract With 2,400 million people on the wrong side of the ‘hunger gap’, of which at least 1,000 million suffer from overt hunger, public education is required into the nature of the world's food crisis. It is insufficient to grow more food in general; it has to be the right kind to satisfy nutritional needs. While animal protein consumption per capita in the satisfied world has increased from 36 to 44 grams per day, that in the developing world has declined from 11 to 8. This is partly because the 450 million people that comprise the well-fed world have to a large extent become parasitic on the hungry world.