Human Animal Research Articles

Affecting Change: The Effect of a Human–Animal Interaction on Donation Giving

ABSTRACT Human–animal interactions (HAIs) are popular in wildlife tourism, with visitors willing to pay an addition to the entry fee for “special” experiences. As prices are set for these experiences, it is unclear as to what value visitors place on them. A donation system using an HAI at Taronga Zoo (Australia) bird presentation provided an opportunity to assess how much visitors would “pay” to give money to a bird. Donation giving was tested under three treatments: (1) bird taking donations, (2) bird present but not taking donations, (3) no bird present. There was also an opportunity for donators to get a badge as a thank you for donating $5+; therefore, this study also considered two conditions: (1) with the audience receiving the message about the badge, (2) with no message, across all treatments. More visitors donated in treatment 1 than in 2 or 3, but larger donations were given when the bird was not taking donations. This was especially important with the connection of the badge messaging, as this resulted in larger donations, especially for treatment 3. The mean donation by donator was AUD$3.07 (± 1.60[SD]), but when averaged across all audience members it was only $0.34 (± 0.20[SD]). While this donation box was the most profitable in the zoo, visitors perceived the HAI to be of low “financial” value. However, this study found that an interactive experience does not need to be physical, such as giving a bird money to place in a donation box, for it to inspire donation giving. We hope to encourage empirical evaluation of incorporating animals into different zoo operations to determine whether their presence adds value or if indeed other inspirational avenues for revenue raising might be more appropriate.

Dancing towards speech improvement: Repurposing dance for motor speech deficits in neurodegenerative diseases.

Dance or rhythmic movement-based training has demonstrated significant efficacy in addressing a range of motor and cognitive deficits associated with neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Leveraging both human and non-human animal behavioral and neurobiological evidence, I hypothesize a possible untapped role of dance training in mitigating impairments in the motor control of speech, a complex sensorimotor behavior affected in these conditions. Here, this hypothesis is supported by an in-depth examination of motor speech deficits in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, at a behavioral, physiological, and neural level. Additionally, literature on the impact of dance training on behaviors and brain pathways possibly relevant to speech motor control in populations with neurodegenerative diseases is thoroughly reviewed. Synthesizing these findings, I propose repurposing dance as a novel treatment for motor speech deficits and outline specific experiments to test this hypothesis. By comprehensively investigating the full spectrum of the effects of a motor-based training, i.e., dance, on often overlooked motor-based behaviors, such as speech, we may uncover novel therapeutic avenues of a practice that has already shown promising implications.

THGS: Lifelike Talking Human Avatar Synthesis From Monocular Video Via 3D Gaussian Splatting

AbstractDespite the remarkable progress in 3D talking head generation, directly generating 3D talking human avatars still suffers from rigid facial expressions, distorted hand textures and out‐of‐sync lip movements. In this paper, we extend speaker‐specific talking head generation task to talking human avatar synthesis and propose a novel pipeline, THGS, that animates lifelike Talking Human avatars using 3D Gaussian Splatting (3DGS). Given speech audio, expression and body poses as input, THGS effectively overcomes the limitations of 3DGS human re‐construction methods in capturing expressive dynamics, such as mouth movements, facial expressions and hand gestures, from a short monocular video. Firstly, we introduce a simple yet effective Learnable Expression Blendshapes (LEB) for facial dynamics re‐construction, where subtle facial dynamics can be generated by linearly combining the static head model and expression blendshapes. Secondly, a Spatial Audio Attention Module (SAAM) is proposed for lip‐synced mouth movement animation, building connections between speech audio and mouth Gaussian movements. Thirdly, we employ a body pose, expression and skinning weights joint optimization strategy to optimize these parameters on the fly, which aligns hand movements and expressions better with video input. Experimental results demonstrate that THGS can achieve high‐fidelity 3D talking human avatar animation at 150+ fps on a web‐based rendering system, improving the requirements of real‐time applications. Our project page is at https://sora158.github.io/THGS.github.io/.

Recent Advances on Immunity and Hypertension: The New Cells on the Kidney Block.

Over the last 50 years, contribution of the immune system has been identified in the development of hypertension and renal injury. Both human and experimental animal models of hypertension have demonstrated that innate and adaptive immune cells, along with their cytokines and chemokines, modulate blood pressure fluctuations and end organ renal damage. Numerous cell types of the innate immune system, specifically monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells present antigenic peptides to T cells promoting inflammation and the elevation of blood pressure. These T cells and other adaptive immune cells, migrate to vascular and tubular cells of the kidney and promote end-organ fibrosis, damage, and ultimately hypertensive injury. Through the development of high throughput screening, novel renal and immune cell subsets have been identified as possible contributors and regulators of renal injury and hypertension. In this review, we will consider classical immunological cells and their contribution to renal inflammation, and novel cell subsets, including renal stromal cells, that could potentially shed new light on renal injury and hypertension. Lastly, we will discuss how interorgan inflammation contributes to the development of hypertension and hypertension-related multi-organ damage, and the clinical implications of the immunological components of renal injury and hypertension.

P0025 The effect of very small superparamagnetic nanoparticles on human blood cells as a diagnostic tool in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Abstract Background The field of application of organic or inorganic nanoparticles (1-100 nm size) is extensive and involves their use in medicine. This includes using nanoparticles in human beings or animals (life-stock) which holds advantages but also bears risks. Therefore, nanoparticles used in diagnostics and therapy should be inert not affecting tissues or immune cells. Additionally, nanoparticles should not aggregate to form clusters exceeding the size of 100 nm or accumulate in sensitive structures like bone marrow or brain for long-term deposition. We developed in-house very small superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (VSOP) with a size of 7 nm that were successfully used in preclinical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for the detection of intestinal inflammation and sclerosis. This study elucidates the effect of nanoparticles on human blood cells, including monocytes as well as monocyte-derived macrophages, in vitro as a first step toward clinical application in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Methods Whole blood of healthy donors and patients suffering from IBD as well as monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages were treated with VSOP in vitro and analysed for changes in their transcriptome, phenotype and function. For transcriptome analysis, RNA sequencing was performed. Cell abundance, activation and proliferation were measured by mass cytometry. Migratory behavior of monocytes was analyzed by live microscopy. Cell metabolism was detected by Seahorse assay. Results RNA sequencing of monocytes showed that the most significantly regulated gene is encoding for the transferrin receptor (Tcfr). As a response to VSOP treatment and VSOP uptake thereby increasing the levels of intracellular iron, Tcfr is probably downregulated to restrict further iron uptake. While RNA sequencing of whole blood showed only significant differences in non-coding genes (C3orf86P, ENSG00000278996, ENSG00000259002), CyTOF analyses revealed that VSOP-treated monocytes are neither activated nor showing increased proliferation. Also, the migratory behavior is not influenced by VSOP uptake. Additionally, VSOP uptake resulted in an enhanced oxygen consumption rate and extracellular acidification rate. In comparison to the uptake of Latex beads, these increased rates are rather attributed to phagocytosis. Conclusion Analyses of our data with PBMC, monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages suggest, that treatment with VSOP has no major affect on phenotype and function of immune cells. Therefore, VSOP are a promising tool for the early detection of IBD through MRI.

Community science as a potential tool to monitor animal demography and human-animal interactions

Community science can provide crucial insights into population dynamics and demography. To date, its effectiveness for understanding human-wildlife interactions has not been tested. This is vital for designing effective wildlife management plans. We used a case study of an individually marked population of mute swans Cygnus olor, to test the reliability of community scientist data for quantifying self-reported interactions. We compared 5,251 community scientist sightings of individually marked birds with 317 observations recorded through systematic recording methods, to test the reliability of sightings, and of self-reported human-swan interactions. 98.86% of ring readings were correctly reported; sighting reliability increased with experience and was higher when the observer fed the birds. Community scientist observations were reliable for quantifying family group size, but not clutch size. Self-reported data for assessing feeding interactions with wildlife were not comparable with systematic recording methods. 22% of standardised observations recorded supplementary feeding of swans by people. This is the first systematic quantification of the frequency of interaction of wild waterfowl with humans through supplementary feeding in the Northern hemisphere; we highlight potential impacts of this common human-wildlife interaction for both birds and people. We provide new insights into using community science methods as potential alternatives to more time-consuming systematic methods. Community science methods may be useful across a range of systems where humans and wildlife interact, but we highlight the need for validation of the reliability of community scientist data, particularly self-reported behaviours, before being used to inform management and conservation practices.

Targeting IGF1 to alleviate obesity through regulating energy expenditure and fat deposition.

Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) is a regulator of both cellular hypertrophy and lipogenesis, which are two key processes for pathogenesis of obesity. However, the in vivo role of IGF1 in the development of obesity remains unclear. Here, we show that IGF1 expression is increased in adipose tissue in obese human patients and animal models. Elevation of IGF1 is associated with increased lipogenic gene expression and decreased energy expenditure. Genetic down-regulation of IGF1 normalizes lipogenic gene expression, restores aberrant energy metabolism and alleviates obese phenotype of a genetic mouse model with IGF1-hypersecretion. Importantly, genetic down-regulation of IGF1 exerts similar effects on development of diet-induced obesity. Furthermore, berberine that is an AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activator in medicinal herbs inhibits IGF1 secretion, decreases lipogenic gene expression and alleviates diet-induced adiposity. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that hypersecretion of IGF1 is a critical factor for the development of obesity and can be targeted using AMPK activators to alleviate obesity.

Prevalence of <i>Trypanasomiasis</i> in Northern Nigeria: A review

Trypanosomiasis, a parasitic disease caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Trypanosoma, is a significant public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa, including Northern Nigeria. The disease, transmitted by tsetse flies, poses a significant threat to human health, livestock production, and economic development. Animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT), also known as Nagana, is caused by various trypanosome species, including T. brucei, T. congolense, T. vivax, T. equiperdum, T. evansi, T. simiae, T. suis, and T. theileri. Cattle are the most affected, but other animals such as goats, dogs, sheep, pigs, and wild animals are also susceptible. Symptoms of AAT include parasitaemia, anemia, loss of weight, reduced productivity, and high mortality, which limit the pace of rural development in tropical Africa. The current threat of AAT ranks among the top cattle diseases on sustainable livestock production and mixed farming. At least 3 million livestock deaths each year are caused by AAT, with a loss in livestock production and mixed agriculture valued at $5 billion US dollars yearly in Africa. Effective and sustainable control measures can result in up to threefold increases in the estimated livestock population in Nigeria. Trypanosomiasis is considered a haemoparasites, posing a major threat for the development of the cattle industry in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. It kills a variety of domestic and wild animals and causes anemia, weight loss, miscarriage, and productivity losses. In Northern Nigeria, both human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) and animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT) are prevalent. The epidemiology of trypanosomosis depends on the distribution of vectors, the virulence of the parasite, and the host's response.

Prevalence and Risk Factors of Waterborne and Foodborne Protozoan Pathogens in Kenya: A One Health Perspective.

Intestinal infections affect approximately 450 million people globally, predominantly impacting children and immunocompromised individuals in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) due to inadequate water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) conditions, poverty, malnutrition, and low literacy. In Kenya, the prevalence of intestinal infections is elevated by warm tropical climates and socioeconomic factors. This scoping review evaluates the national prevalence, risk factors, and contamination sources of intestinal protozoa in Kenya, using a One Health approach to synthesize existing data from various human, animal, and environmental studies. A comprehensive literature search identified 292 studies, of which 67 met the inclusion criteria, covering the period from 1966 to 2024. The review found that most studies utilized stool microscopy, a method with limited sensitivity, and largely focused on vulnerable human populations, with minimal investigation into environmental reservoirs. Key protozoa identified included Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium, and Giardia, with transmission driven by poor WASH conditions, environmental factors, and close human-animal interactions. The findings highlight significant gaps in environmental surveillance and suggest the need for a robust, integrated One Health approach to better understand and control protozoan infections in Kenya.

Characterizing SV40-hTERT Immortalized Human Lung Microvascular Endothelial Cells as Model System for Mechanical Stretch-Induced Lung Injury.

Drug development for human disease relies on preclinical model systems such as human cell cultures and animal experiments before therapeutic treatments can ultimately be tested on humans in clinical studies. We here describe the generation of a novel human cell line (HLMVEC/SVTERT289) that we generated by transfection of microvascular endothelial cells from healthy donor lung tissue with the catalytic domain of telomerase and the SV40 large T/small t-antigen. These cells exhibited satisfactory growth characteristics and largely maintained their native characteristics, including morphology, cell surface marker expression, angiogenic potential and the protein composition of secreted extracellular vesicles. In order to test their suitability as a disease model, we simulated mechanical stress induced by cyclic stretch as encountered in ventilator-induced lung injury using the FlexCell® system and compared their performance to primary lung endothelial cells. In this setting, HLMVEC/SVTERT289 cells exhibited significantly higher neprilysin activity on the cell surface and extracellular vesicles secreted from the cell line exhibited higher Tissue Factor and ACE2 expression but lower ACE expression and ACE activity than vesicles released from the primary cells. This study provides an unprecedented and detailed characterization of the HLMVEC/SVTERT289 cell line, which should help to appraise its suitability in different molecular studies.

Nanotechnology's Voyage: Enriching Aquafeed with Nutraceuticals

The integration of nutraceuticals into aquafeed presents a promising approach to enhancing the health and growth performance of aquatic species. However, the effectiveness of these bioactive compounds is often limited by their stability, bioavailability, and delivery efficiency. Nanotechnology is a key tool in modern agriculture, and agri-food nanotechnology is expected to become a major economic force in the near future. This field focuses on sustainability and protecting foods produced through agriculture, including crops for both human consumption and animal feed. Nanotechnology offers innovative solutions to these challenges by enabling the encapsulation and controlled release of nutraceuticals, thereby improving their stability and bioavailability. This abstract explores the potential of nanotechnology in the development of advanced aquafeeds enriched with nutraceuticals. Key areas of focus include the design and synthesis of nanocarriers, such as liposomes, nanoparticles, and nano-emulsions, tailored for aquatic environments. The benefits of using nanotechnology for nutraceutical delivery in aquafeed are discussed, including enhanced nutrient absorption, targeted delivery, and sustained release, which collectively contribute to improved health and productivity of farmed aquatic species. The abstract also highlights current research trends, challenges, and future prospects in the application of nanotechnology to aquafeed, underscoring its potential to revolutionize aquaculture nutrition and support sustainable aquaculture practices.

MANAGEMENT OF HEPATIC HYDATID CYST WITH CYSTOBILLIARY COMMUNICATION

Background: Hepatic hydatid cysts, caused by the larval stage of Echinococcus granulosus, are a significant health concern in regions where livestock farming and animal-human interactions are prevalent. The liver is the most commonly affected organ, and while cysts may remain asymptomatic for years, complications such as cystobilliary communication (CBC) can lead to jaundice, cholangitis, and biliary obstruction. Effective management strategies are essential to mitigate these complications and improve patient outcomes. Objective: To evaluate the management strategies for hepatic hydatid cysts with cystobilliary communication and determine the effectiveness of surgical and medical approaches. Methods: This observational study was conducted at Bolan Medical College, Quetta, from January to July 2024, involving 85 patients diagnosed with hepatic hydatid cysts and CBC. Inclusion criteria were confirmed cases of hepatic hydatid cysts with CBC, identified via ultrasound (US), computed tomography (CT), or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Patients with previous hydatid surgery, other liver pathologies, or age under 18 were excluded. Data collection included demographic details, clinical symptoms, comorbidities, and imaging findings. Patients were categorized into surgical and medical treatment groups. Surgical procedures included cystectomy and partial hepatectomy, while medical management comprised albendazole or mebendazole. Patients were followed for three months to assess outcomes, symptom resolution, and recurrence. Results: The study included 85 patients, with a mean age of 47.3 ± 12.6 years (range: 18–78). Males constituted 55.3%, and females 44.7%. Comorbidities were present in 35.3% of patients, including hypertension (15.3%), diabetes mellitus (10.6%), and chronic liver disease (4.7%). Jaundice (61.2%), abdominal pain (56.5%), and elevated liver enzymes (78.8%) were the most common symptoms. Cysts were predominantly located in the right lobe (88.2%), with minor CBC observed in 44.7%, moderate CBC in 38.8%, and severe CBC in 16.5% of patients. Surgical treatment was administered to 64.7% of patients, with cystectomy being the most frequent procedure (58.2%). Symptom resolution rates were significantly higher in the surgical group compared to the medical group. Recurrence rates were lower in the surgical group (3.6%) compared to the medical group (6.7%). Conclusion: Surgical management, particularly cystectomy, demonstrated superior outcomes for hepatic hydatid cysts complicated by CBC, achieving higher symptom resolution and lower recurrence rates than medical management. The degree of CBC influenced treatment outcomes, underscoring the importance of individualized management strategies.

Précis of John McDowell on Worldly Subjectivity

This is a précis of my recent monograph John McDowell on Worldly Subjectivity: Oxford Kantianism Meets Phenomenology and Cognitive Sciences. I first describe the key question the book is trying to answer via understanding McDowell’s thinking and the general outline of it. The key question is a Kantian how-possible question, and the outline includes the distinction between first and second nature, the contrast between Cogito and Homo sapience, and how a minded human animal can be a perceiver, knower, thinker, speaker, agent, person, and conceptual cum self-conscious being in the world. I then focus on two key notions of the subtitles—phenomenology and cognitive sciences—and explain how they figure in the text. After that, a chapter-by-chapter summary is provided, albeit selectively. This introductory piece ends with a prediction that McDowell’s works will still be widely discussed in the reasonable distant future.

Domesticated chickens interact more with humans and are more explorative than Red Junglefowl.

Domesticated species are adapted to thrive in an environment with regular human interaction, and these interactions influence the development of a human-animal relationship. Chickens are the most abundant domesticated species, but their relationship with humans is poorly understood. A more comprehensive analysis of this relationship would provide valuable insight into their welfare needs. The present study compares the behavior of a domesticated and a non-domesticated breed of Gallus gallus in the presence of a familiar human. The domesticated breed was more active overall, and displayed more human contact-seeking behavior. These behavioral differences contribute to our understanding of the human-chicken relationship and could be helpful new insights for improving welfare of chickens in agricultural practice.

Effects of Animal-Assisted Therapy for Anxiety Reduction in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review

Background: Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) is a clinical approach aimed at building valuable human–animal relationships with both preventive and therapeutic goals. It is provided by a healthcare professional and involves animals (meeting certain criteria) as an integral part of the treatment process. This type of therapy has been shown to have multiple benefits in several areas, such as reducing anxiety in a variety of different groups of people. However, few studies have specifically investigated the benefits of AAT in reducing anxiety in children and adolescents. This systematic review aimed to comprehensively assess the evidence regarding the effectiveness of AAT in reducing anxiety among children and adolescents while also identifying research gaps in this field. Methods: Studies focusing on the relationship of these two variables were obtained from multiple databases (EBSCO, PubMed, and Web of Science). Results: AAT has grown and the literature demonstrates several benefits of this approach. However, few studies have demonstrated the benefits of AAT for reducing anxiety in children and adolescents. Conclusions: Most of these few studies show that this type of intervention can help reduce anxiety levels.

The Unexplored Role of Connexin Hemichannels in Promoting Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy Progression.

DUX4 is typically a repressed transcription factor, but its aberrant activation in Facioscapulohumeral Muscular Dystrophy (FSHD) leads to cell death by disrupting muscle homeostasis. This disruption affects crucial processes such as myogenesis, sarcolemma integrity, gene regulation, oxidative stress, immune response, and many other biological pathways. Notably, these disrupted processes have been associated, in other pathological contexts, with the presence of connexin (Cx) hemichannels-transmembrane structures that mediate communication between the intracellular and extracellular environments. Thus, hemichannels have been implicated in skeletal muscle atrophy, as observed in human biopsies and animal models of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy, Becker Muscular Dystrophy, and Dysferlinopathies, suggesting a potentially shared mechanism of muscle atrophy that has not yet been explored in FSHD. Despite various therapeutic strategies proposed to manage FSHD, no treatment or cure is currently available. This review summarizes the current understanding of the mechanisms underlying FSHD progression, with a focus on hormones, inflammation, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and mitochondrial function. Additionally, it explores the potential of targeting hemichannels as a therapeutic strategy to slow disease progression by preventing the spread of pathogenic factors between muscle cells.

Dental Trauma following Animal Attack: A Case Report

Animal attacks are a common cause of human injuries worldwide, with human-leopard encounters frequently reported in India. Animal attack injuries are increasingly common in trauma centres due to human encroachment into wildlife habitats, leading to more human-animal interactions. These attacks, especially to the face, can cause significant functional, cosmetic, and structural damage. A 40-year-old woman was attacked by a leopard, resulting in tooth mobility, pain, and orofacial lacerations. Initial treatment and primary wound closure were performed in Ratlam, Madhya Pradesh, India. On further examination, necrosis with blackish discolouration of the left ala of the nose was observed, along with scarring on the lips. Tooth 22 exhibited luxation without alveolar bone involvement, leading to proclination. A multidisciplinary treatment approach was adopted, beginning with manual manipulation and repositioning of tooth 22, followed by stabilisation and endodontic treatment. For extraoral management, plastic surgery was performed, involving a paramedian forehead flap and alar cartilage remodelling using left auricular cartilage. The patient underwent follow-ups at one, three, six months and one year. In conclusion, managing dental trauma from animal attacks requires a multidisciplinary approach and ongoing follow-up. By fostering collaboration among healthcare professionals and ensuring vigilant care, we can significantly improve patient outcomes and recovery.

Chemically Modified Gelatin/Chitosan as a Chemosensor Adsorbent for Detection of Toxic Metals and Removal of Organic Dyes

ABSTRACTDue to the vast amounts of toxic metals, oils, and dyes containing wastewater, water pollution is currently a serious health issue for human beings and animals. Adsorption of these pollutants using a biopolymeric‐based hydrogel from wastewater is one of the potent methods due to its biodegradability and low cost. Herein, a porous and biodegradable hydrogel (CS–GL–IL) was synthesized from gelatin (GL), chitosan (CS), and ionic liquid (IL), acting as an excellent adsorbent for water pollutants. The maximum percentage swelling obtained for the synthesized CS–GL–IL hydrogel was 480% ± 3% for 0.5 g of the ionic liquid, 0.05 g of APS, and 35 mL of water at 65°C for 1.5 h of reaction. The process of eliminating methyl orange (MO) and methylene blue (MB) from a dye containing water was done using the CS–GL–IL hydrogel. Numerous methods, including PXRD, SEM, FTIR, and rheology, have been used for the characterization of the CS–GL–IL hydrogel. The obtained data indicate that the Freundlich adsorption isotherm with pseudo‐second‐order kinetics was followed for adsorption of dyes. The hydrogel exhibits excellent adsorption capacities of 1171 mg/g and 1062 mg/g for MO and MB, respectively. Furthermore, the hydrogel also exhibited efficiency in detection and adsorption of Ni2+ and Pb2+ with adsorption capacities of 315 mg/g and 370 mg/g, respectively. Dye removal efficiency remained above 82% even after eight iterations of dye adsorption and desorption experiments. Due to its high adsorption potential and regeneration capabilities, the CS–GL–IL hydrogel acts as an excellent material for remediation of wastewater.

Whole genome sequencing analysis of enteropathogenic Escherichia coli from human and companion animals in Korea

Whole genome sequencing analysis of enteropathogenic <i>Escherichia coli</i> from human and companion animals in Korea

Oxidative/Nitrosative Stress, Apoptosis, and Redox Signaling: Key Players in Neurodegenerative Diseases.

Neurodegenerative diseases are significant health concerns that have a profound impact on the quality and duration of life for millions of individuals. These diseases are characterized by pathological changes in various brain regions, specific genetic mutations associated with the disease, deposits of abnormal proteins, and the degeneration of neurological cells. As neurodegenerative disorders vary in their epidemiological characteristics and vulnerability of neurons, treatment of these diseases is usually aimed at slowing disease progression. The heterogeneity of genetic and environmental factors involved in the process of neurodegeneration makes current treatment methods inadequate. However, the existence of common molecular mechanisms in the pathogenesis of these diseases may allow the development of new targeted therapeutic strategies. Oxidative and nitrosative stress damages membrane components by accumulating ROS and RNS and disrupting redox balance. This process results in the induction of apoptosis, which is important in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases through oxidative stress. Studies conducted using postmortem human samples, animal models, and cell cultures have demonstrated that oxidative stress, nitrosative stress, and apoptosis are crucial factors in the development of diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Multiple Sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Huntington's disease. The excessive production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, elevated levels of free radicals, heightened mitochondrial stress, disturbances in energy metabolism, and the oxidation and nitrosylation of cellular macromolecules are recognized as triggers for neuronal cell death. Challenges in managing and treating neurodegenerative diseases require a better understanding of this field at the molecular level. Therefore, this review elaborates on the molecular mechanisms by which oxidative and nitrosative stress are involved in neuronal apoptosis.