Humanitarian Non-governmental Organizations Research Articles

STRATEGIES TO OVERCOME BARRIERS IN HUMANITARIAN SUPPLY CHAIN RESPONSE: JORDANIAN NGOS

The supply chain of humanitarian non-governmental organizations (NGOs) increasingly faces constant barriers to coordination. This study aims to examine how information technology can be used in the supply chain of the NGO humanitarian organizations in Jordan. A qualitative research design is used following case studies and interviews to help comprehend the situation within the humanitarian organizations in Jordan. It interviewed 16 humanitarian employees with at least five years in the subject discipline. It also used articles, documents, and books to help comprehend the nature of humanitarian firms and the strategies that can be used to overcome barriers that hinder the success of information sharing. The findings showed that there are barriers within the humanitarian organizations, but by implementing an information system, these can be resolved. Therefore, the proposed strategies include legal approaches and training to counter barriers to information sharing in humanitarian organizations. Furthermore, it contributes by highlighting the significance of information sharing within the humanitarian organization, which would assist in instigating successful supply chain procedures. Finally, it concludes the significance of information technologies in humanitarian logistics for effective disaster management.

The relationship between humanitarian NGO communication and user engagement on Twitter

One of the few actors whose mission is to provide support and advocacy for refugee communities with limited access to information and services are humanitarian non-governmental organizations (NGOs). This study examines the narratives produced by the leading humanitarian NGOs on one of the most popular social media platforms today—namely, Twitter. The study investigates which narratives are most popular among global NGOs and whether the way they frame the refugee issue is related to Twitter engagement. The findings contribute to scholarship on online communication and user engagement, and also inform humanitarian NGO practices and policy discussions regarding media and migration.

‘Yardımsever’ olarak Devletler: Türk Tipi İnsani Diplomasi

Humanitarian diplomacy refers to a distinctive form of diplomatic activity undertaken by various actors to protect human life and dignity in situations where they are under threat. Initially, the concept was more associated with humanitarian non-governmental organizations and some UN agencies. However, today, an increasing number of states adopt humanitarian diplomacy as a foreign policy instrument and portray themselves as global humanitarian actors. Over the last decade, Turkey has also emerged as one of the major actors in the field of humanitarian assistance, and humanitarianism has become a central theme in the discourse of Turkish foreign policymakers. Most notably, the Turkish government has officially placed the concept of humanitarian diplomacy in its foreign policy agenda. Therefore, this article seeks to analyze the recent emergence of Turkey as a global humanitarian actor and explore the main characteristics of the ‘Turkish brand of humanitarian diplomacy.’ For this purpose, it offers a three-pillar approach to assess the individual state practice of humanitarian diplomacy and discusses how Turkey’s general humanitarian policy resonates with the three pillars of state-led humanitarian diplomacy. It also examines its humanitarian responses to Somalia and the Rohingya crisis in Myanmar as case studies. State-led humanitarian diplomacy has further deepened the politicization of humanitarianism and the standardization of the humanitarian system in the post-Cold War period. In this context, the article concludes that Turkey’s adoption of humanitarian diplomacy has contributed to these two global trends, both by associating humanitarian diplomacy with broader political issues and political goals and by helping the institutional capacity-building of the international humanitarian aid system.

Mapping relations between state and humanitarian NGOs: the case of Turkey

The relationship between states and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) is the subject of differing interpretations. Many observers of transnational civil society have pointed out a closing of civic space, including humanitarian space. Accordingly, many have focused on conflict and cooperation as main modes of interaction between states and NGOs. In this article we argue that a more in-depth look at state–NGO relations in Turkey shows that this binary framework is not sufficient. Relying on a framework that delineates conflict, cooperation, competition and co-optation as the four main patterns of interaction between states and NGOs, we look at the case of humanitarian NGOs based in Turkey. While aspects of state–NGO relations in Turkey indicate a co-opted humanitarian space, based on interviews with humanitarian NGOs in Turkey and secondary sources, we show that relations between the state and civil society actors are much more complex and evade simple categorisation. This underscores that ideological proximity does not always bring about smooth cooperation, and co-optation does not prevent NGOs from acting contrary to the wishes of the government. Humanitarian NGOs are also able to exert autonomous influence on governments.

Key opportunities and challenges for the use of big data in migration research and policy.

Migration is one of the defining issues of the 21st century. Better data is required to improve understanding about how and why people are moving, target interventions and support evidence-based migration policy. Big data, defined as large, complex data from diverse sources, is regularly proposed as a solution to help address current gaps in knowledge. The authors participated in a workshop held in London, UK, in July 2019, that brought together experts from the United Nations (UN), humanitarian non-governmental organisations (NGOs), policy and academia to develop a better understanding of how big data could be used for migration research and policy. We identified six key areas regarding the application of big data in migration research and policy: accessing and utilising data; integrating data sources and knowledge; understanding environmental drivers of migration; improving healthcare access for migrant populations; ethical and security concerns around the use of big data; and addressing political narratives. We advocate the need for careful consideration of the challenges faced by the use of big data, as well as increased cross-disciplinary collaborations to advance the use of big data in migration research whilst safeguarding vulnerable migrant communities.

Developing Cultural Awareness Curricular Competencies for Humanitarian Non-Governmental Organization Staff.

Cultural awareness is an important part of organizational success when interacting with multiple cultures. Research has shown a dearth of standardized cultural awareness training programs for non-governmental humanitarian organization staff. This study aims to develop an expert-consensus set of cultural awareness competencies as the basis for development of humanitarian staff cultural awareness trainings. A modified Delphi process was selected. The first round of surveys collected a list of cultural awareness competencies from experts in the fields of non-governmental organization (NGO) operations and cultural awareness education and research. This collated list of competencies was then used as the basis of a survey obtaining ratings by the group on a five-point Likert scale. Competencies which achieved an average rating of 4.0 or higher were considered to be "important" for inclusion in future training programs. A total of 67.9% of contacted experts agreed to participate, with 84.2% of those completing all rounds of the survey. This group developed a list of ten competencies, including: Cultural Awareness/Sensitivity and Intercultural Communication; Cultural Intelligence; Unconscious Bias/Diversity Awareness; a Universal Declaration of Ethical Principles; Gender and Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and Other Sexual Identities (LGBTQ+) Issues and Safety; Analytical and Critical Thinking Skills; Negotiation; Program Mission; Power Dynamics; and Empathy. This study defined a set of ten expert-consensus cultural awareness competencies which can be a basis for future NGO staff training. Future work can both use these competencies to create educational programs and further define and expand the set of competencies based on analyses of their implementation.

Shifts in the humanitarian space? Examining NGO–military engagements during the 2017 crisis in Marawi, Philippines

AbstractThe increase in military deployments for operations other than war, and their co‐location with humanitarian actors prompt an examination of how operational engagements are blurring boundaries between the two. Military‐initiated coordination structures that bridge civilian and military spheres of activities are seen as signs of the securitization of the humanitarian space. Examining the dynamics between deployed Philippine military units and local non‐governmental organizations (NGOs) in the humanitarian response to the 2017 Marawi siege, the former physically separated and subsumed humanitarian actions to kinetic goals. Using data from 48 interviews of commanders, NGO representatives and local government officials in 2018‐2019, military‐NGO interface was limited by military restrictions on mobility and by having a separate coordination platform benefiting soldiers and evacuees, respectively. Humanitarian NGOs are more willing to work with and are differential to the securitized space compared to human rights‐based NGOs.

Humanitarian INGO governance arrangements and forms of coordination

AbstractAs international humanitarian nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) continue to adapt their global governance arrangements in response to changes in the external environment, these changes are creating new challenges for internal coordination. However, we know little about the relationship between these governance arrangements and the forms of internal coordination INGOs adopt. This paper provides a comparative analysis of 40 INGO families with diverse backgrounds and approaches to humanitarian and development work. It examines the relationship between their global governance arrangements in terms of decision‐making, integration, and membership; and the forms of internal coordination they adopt. The finding is that different forms of coordination are associated with membership size and resource disparity, combined with the varying needs for group‐level capacity that comes with different forms of decision‐making and integration.

The Impact of Integrated UN Missions on Humanitarian NGO Security

Abstract Since the end of the Cold War, the UN has extended many of its missions in conflict zones to include political, military, and humanitarian activities. Many humanitarian nongovernmental organizations have been critical of these “integrated” UN missions, claiming that they can blur the distinction between political, military, and humanitarian action, thus placing humanitarian aid workers at risk of retaliation from warring factions opposed to the UN’s political objectives. This proposition is empirically tested using generalized methods of moments statistical analysis of sixty-seven countries that experienced intrastate conflict between 1997 and 2018. When assessing attacks in general—to include the sum of aid workers killed, wounded, and kidnapped—the results indicate that humanitarian aid workers are more likely to come under attack in countries that have an integrated UN mission. However, when the attacks are assessed separately, results show that this relationship holds only with aid workers who are killed in the field.

The Impact of COVID-19 on the Working Equid Community: Responses from 1530 Individuals Accessing NGO Support in 14 Low- and Middle-Income Countries.

Simple SummaryThe COVID-19 pandemic was declared on 11 March 2020. Countries have been impacted variably, with differing disease control measures implemented. The working equid community includes some of the world’s most marginalised people, who rely on animals for their daily lives and livelihoods. The aim of this study was to learn about the effects of the pandemic on the working equid community, and in doing so, to develop credible methods to collect data in future unprecedented events. There were 1530 survey respondents from a population of individuals who received support from equid welfare projects across 14 low- or middle-income countries projects during November and December 2020. The main findings were that, compared to prior to the pandemic, equids were working less, individuals were receiving less income, with expenses staying the same or increasing. In the short term, different indicators show that the effect on equine welfare has been inconsistent, but most owners reported no change in their equid’s health. However, it is predicted that there will be negative long-term impacts on human and equid welfare due to financial insecurity. This requires monitoring. Collaboration with humanitarian organisations, governments, and animal welfare non-governmental organisations is required to mitigate deep-rooted issues involving the working equid community.The COVID-19 pandemic was declared on 11 March 2020. The working equid community includes some of the world’s most marginalised people, who rely on animals for their daily lives and livelihoods. A cross-sectional study investigated the effects of COVID-19 on working equid communities, with the intention of developing methods for replication in future unprecedented events. A multi-language survey was developed, involving 38 predominantly closed questions, and carried out face-to-face, over telephone, or online. There were 1530 respondents from a population of individuals who received support from equid welfare projects across 14 low- or middle-income countries projects during November and December 2020. Overall, at the time of survey completion, 57% (875/1522) of respondents reported that their equids were working less, 76% (1130/1478) reported a decreased monthly income from equids, and 78% (1186/1519) reported a reduction in household income compared to pre-pandemic levels. Costs of equid upkeep remained the same for 58% (886/1519) of respondents and 68% (1034/1518) reported no change in the health of their equid. The potential long-term impacts on human and equid welfare due to reported financial insecurities necessitates monitoring. A One Welfare approach, involving collaboration with governments, humanitarian, and animal welfare non-governmental organisations is required to mitigate deep-rooted issues.

United to rescue? Humanitarian role conceptions and NGO–NGO interactions in the Mediterranean Sea

ABSTRACT The large number of asylum seekers dying off the coast of Libya has turned the Southern Mediterranean Sea into a new humanitarian space, prompting 11 non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to launch maritime Search and Rescue (SAR) operations between 2014 and 2017. These NGOs engaged in a complex web of interactions, ranging from rare instances of hostility, competition and mistrust to coordination, cooperation and integration. Drawing on role theory, I argue that organisational role conceptions are key to shaping NGO–NGO interactions. The humanitarian principles of neutrality, impartiality and independence serve as action scripts that inform NGOs’ role in the humanitarian space. Sea rescue NGOs have upheld different interpretations of humanitarian principles, developing supportive, neutral, or confrontational approaches vis-à-vis European governments’ border control policies. By leveraging content analysis and semi-structured interviews, I show that organisations with matching role conceptions have engaged in tighter forms of cooperation; charities with divergent role conceptions, by contrast, have shown a tendency to develop mistrust and engage in more competitive interactions. These frictions inhibited NGOs from forming a united front vis-à-vis policy restrictions and criminalisation, hindering the legitimacy and viability of non-governmental sea rescue.

An analysis of compounding factors of epidemics in complex emergencies: a system dynamics approach

PurposeThis study aims to describe the compounding factors in a complex emergency, which exacerbate a cholera epidemic among vulnerable populations due to supply chain disruptions. Basic needs such as food, medicine, water, sanitation and hygiene commodities are critical to reduce the incidence rate of cholera and control the spread of infection. Conflicts cause damage to infrastructure, displace vulnerable populations and restrict the flow of goods from both commercial and humanitarian organizations. This study assesses the underlying internal and external factors that either aggravate or mitigate the risk of a cholera outbreak in such settings, using Yemen as a case study.Design/methodology/approachThis study adopts a system dynamics methodology to analyze factors that influence cholera outbreaks in the context of the Yemeni Civil War. A causal loop diagram with multiple components was constructed to represent the complexities of humanitarian situations that require critical decision-making. The model was built using data from humanitarian organizations, non-governmental organizations and practitioners, along with literature from academic sources. Variables in the model were confirmed through semi-structured interviews with a field expert.FindingsCompounding factors that influenced the cholera outbreak in Yemen are visualized in a causal loop diagram, which can improve the understanding of relationships where numerous uncertainties exist. A strong link exists between humanitarian response and the level of infrastructure development in a country. Supply chains are affected by constraints deriving from the Yemeni conflict, further inhibiting the use of infrastructure, which limits access to basic goods and services. Aligning long-term development objectives with short-term humanitarian response efforts can create more flexible modes of assistance to prevent and control future outbreaks.Research limitations/implicationsThe model focuses on the qualitative aspects of system dynamics to visualize the logistics and supply chain-related constraints that impact cholera prevention, treatment and control through humanitarian interventions. The resulting causal loop diagram is bounded by the Yemen context; thus, an extension of the model adapted for other contexts is recommended for further study.Practical implicationsThis study presents a systematic view of dynamic factors existing in complex emergencies that have cause-and-effect relationships. Several models of cholera outbreaks have been used in previous studies, primarily focusing on the modes and mechanisms of transmission throughout a population. However, such models typically do not include other internal and external factors that influence the population and context at the site of an outbreak. This model incorporates those factors from a logistics perspective to address the distribution of in-kind goods and cash and voucher assistance.Social implicationsThis study has been aligned with six of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), using their associated targets in the model as variables that influence the cholera incidence rate. Recognizing that the SDGs are interlinked, as are the dynamic factors in complex humanitarian emergencies, the authors have chosen to take an interdisciplinary approach to consider social, economic and environmental factors that may be impacted by this research.Originality/valueThis paper provides an insight into the underlying inter-relations of internal and external factors present in the context of a cholera outbreak in a complex crisis. Supply chains for food; water, sanitation and hygiene; and health products are crucial to help prevent, control and treat an outbreak. The model exposes vulnerabilities in the supply chain, which may offer guidance for decision makers to improve resilience, reduce disruptions and decrease the severity of cholera outbreaks.

Systemic sustainability and resilience assessment of health systems, addressing global societal priorities: Learnings from a top nonprofit hospital in a bioclimatic building in Africa

Health services represent a cornerstone to ensure well-being and human rights, particularly in deprived areas. The resource cost and appropriate use for the implementation of a top-quality hospital in Sudan are here investigated. An emerging approach such as systems-based Emergy Accounting is applied to assess its sustainability and resilience, also relying on Life-Cycle Assessment data to calculate some new unit emergy values. Very few similar studies have addressed civil works so far, even less bioclimatic buildings, while the focus on health systems is an absolute novelty. Particular attention is paid to design in adverse climate and economic conditions, to the humanitarian nongovernmental organisation running the hospital, and to the cutting-edge medical staff and technologies imported from abroad, also letting local practitioners train in excellence medicine. The system's direct and indirect socio-ecological requirements are expressed as emergy (resource investment) per patient-day, per cardiac surgical operation, per outpatient visit, and per year. From a quantitative viewpoint, these indicators represent a benchmark for improvement scenarios, comparison with new studies in a deserving field, and future investments, driven by effective healthcare policies. They also provide an overview of the efforts required by nature and society to ensure a human right in conditions of scarcity. Besides the possibility to lower a hospital's environmental impact (sustainability-oriented) and to keep it functioning over time in changing climate, resource, societal, economic, and geo-political scenarios (resilience-oriented), this study leads to original remarks upon societal priorities and upon the challenges of guaranteeing high-quality health systems in an uncertain century.

Non-traditional Illustrations of Compliance-Generation from Practice

Widespread violations of international humanitarian law (IHL) in today's armed conflicts continues to be a critical challenge for the international community. Many actors such as United Nations agencies, the International Committee of the Red Cross, or non-governmental organizations (NGOs) engage with parties to conflict to promote their compliance with IHL. In this intervention, I will focus on the positive role that non-traditional actors, such as non-state armed groups (NSAGs) and their constituencies, may play in this regard. My argument draws mainly from my experience with Geneva Call, a humanitarian NGO that has been engaging NSAGs toward IHL compliance over the past twenty years.

Leadership challenges in Christian non-governmental organisations

This article refers to selected issues elaborated from my interdisciplinary doctoral thesis accomplished at the University of South Africa in 2019. I investigated the ethical-theoretical frameworks as well as practices of Christian humanitarian non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in Germany by combining a theoretical part (including philosophy, theology, business studies and development studies) and an empirical part. The empirical part was accomplished by interviewing 11 NGOs from the humanitarian field (development and/or relief agencies in an international context). The findings of theory and practice showed that many Christian NGOs typically conform to the secular mindset and regulations in order to be able to function as organisations. The results also revealed that Christian NGOs have difficulties in defining their identity in order to be attractive and convincing to their current and prospective employees and donors. In addition, organisational and hierarchical structures are mostly taken from business companies but do not necessarily always fit to the individual organisations. The research is significant because it shows to what extent these NGOs experience tensions and insecurities having to work in a secular environment, and it helps to identify some typical challenges that Christian organisations face in Western countries. The purpose of the thesis was to impact on the reflection and practice of leaders of NGOs in their quest to understand developments and paradigm shifts, and ensure that they will act in a recognisably Christian way. Contribution: This article has been held as a presentation at the Leadership Conference in Pretoria, South Africa, in 2019. It contributes to the research of specific Christian leadership, and particularly of leadership in Christian non-governmental organisations. This article aims to describe the challenges these organisations face, having to work in the midst of a secular environment.

Teaching humanitarian surgery: Filling the gap between NGO needs and subspecialized surgery through a novel inter-university certificate

: Background: Access to surgical care is a global health burden. A broad spectrum of surgical competences is required in the humanitarian context whereas current occidental surgical training is oriented towards subspecialties. We proposed to design a course addressing the specificities of surgery in the humanitarian setting and austere environment. Method: The novelty of the course lies in the implication of academic medical doctors alongside with surgeons working for humanitarian non-governmental organizations (NGO). The medical component of the National Defense participated regarding particular topics of war surgery. The course is aimed at trained surgeons and senior residents interested in participating to humanitarian missions. Results: The program includes theoretical teaching on surgical knowledge and skills applied to the austere context. The course also covers non-medical aspects of humanitarian action such as international humanitarian law, logistics, disaster management and psychological support. It comprises a large-scale mass casualty exercise and a practical skills lab on surgical techniques, ultrasonography and resuscitation. Attendance to the four teaching modules, ATLS certification and succeeding final examinations provide an interuniversity certificate. 30 participants originating from 11 different countries joined the course. Various surgical backgrounds, training levels as well as humanitarian experience were represented. Feedback from the participants was solicited after each teaching module and remarks were applied to the following session. Overall participant evaluations of the first course session are presented. Conclusion: Teaching humanitarian surgery joining academic and field actors seems to allow filling the gap between high-income country surgical practice and the needs of the humanitarian context.

The value of case reports in democratising evidence from resource-limited settings: results of an exploratory survey

BackgroundFollowing a knowledge management analysis, Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) – a medical humanitarian non-governmental organisation (NGO) – identified significant loss of medical knowledge from the field, owing primarily to the absence of a platform on which to share clinical lessons learned in humanitarian and resource-limited settings (HRLS). Wishing to address these missed opportunities to retain important scientific and pragmatic knowledge, the NGO has begun to actively encourage its clinicians to publish case reports/series that bring new and/or practical insights of benefit to patients and population groups. In parallel, we wished to obtain a clearer understanding of how case reports (CRs)/series can best play their role as ‘first-line evidence’ from HRLS, especially in areas suffering from a significant lack of data.MethodsWe developed a survey with closed and open questions on ‘The value of CRs from HRLS’ to explore primarily (1) the reasons why this form of evidence from HRLS is often lacking, (2) what makes a case report/series worth sharing with the wider global health community, and (3) how we can ensure that published case reports/series reach their target audience.ResultsOver a 6-month period, 1115 health professionals responded to the survey. Participants included clinicians and public health specialists from all over the world, with a majority based in Africa. The main reason cited for the dearth of CRs from HRLS was that practitioners are simply not writing and/or submitting reports (as versus having their papers rejected) due mainly to (1) a lack of skills and (2) time constraints. A large majority of respondents felt the CRs are a valuable tool for HRLS given their ability to discuss how cases are managed with rudimentary means as well as to draw attention to emerging or underestimated public health problems and neglected populations.ConclusionWe conclude that the clinical knowledge gained in resource-challenged settings is being underutilised in the interest of patients and global health. Consequently, clinicians in HRLS need greater access to basic training in scientific investigation and writing in addition to awareness as to the potential value of sharing their clinical experience with a view to broadening evidence production from high-income to low-income settings.

Why Evolving European SAR Policies Threaten Merchant Shipping

Operators of commercial vessels have rescued tens of thousands of migrant seafarers in the Mediterranean Sea since 2014. For commercial actors, swift disembarkation of survivors is critical to ensure safety and prevent further disruption to the rescuing vessel’s primary voyage. From 2014 through 2017, European coastal states such as Italy, Malta, and Greece permitted rescued migrants to disembark into their territory. But recent policy changes reflect evolving attitudes about search and rescue (SAR) responsibility. Beginning in 2018, commercial vessels and humanitarian non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have performed large-scale rescues only to be denied immediate access to Mediterranean ports. This has created alarming scenarios in which rescued migrants and ship operators have remained at sea for days and weeks as solutions were negotiated by politicians on an ad hoc basis. Addressing the consequences of this policy transformation, this paper examines its impact on commercial vessel contributions to migrant rescues. Highlighting the intertwined legal responsibilities of private vessels and public authorities, it discusses the international SAR framework and its contemporary implementation. It then surveys reactions within the shipping industry reflecting concerns that evolving regional perspectives may drive up the risks, costs, and frequency of private participation in SAR operations.

Development and Peace Through Traditional, Cultural, Islamic Mediation

In a world filled with conflict, competition, and war, those who work for peace shape the character of human existence at the local level. The lives and petitions of individuals who work to reduce the ravages of conflict create profound effects and deserve attention and study. In the last two decades of international politics, violence in Islamic societies in Afghanistan, Iraq, Somalia, Sudan, and elsewhere has gained global public attention. However, the international media frequently does see the local-level initiatives to promote peace in traditional Islamic societies. Many people, whether in humanitarian nongovernmental organisation operations, or as part of a military-led reconstruction team, have worked and poured treasure into promoting stability in traditional societies suffering from insecurity. Understanding the resources for peace offered in Islam and the way in which Muslims work for peace in their communities can empower those who seek to help and protect them from strategic errors.

Microfranchising to Alleviate Poverty: An Innovation Network Perspective

In 2015, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals set an ethical imperative: end extreme poverty and hunger by 2030. Microfranchising can contribute to this critical effort by offering nonprofit organizations and businesses an opportunity to rapidly scale entrepreneurship within Base of the Pyramid (BOP) markets. However, while abundant literature exists on traditional franchising, we know little about how to leverage microfranchising in resource-scarce contexts to alleviate poverty. To address this gap, we report a longitudinal case study of a microfranchise network aimed at providing timely access to quality, affordable agricultural input, and services for millions of small-scale farmers in Bangladesh. Anchored in the BOP and microfranchise literature and drawing on innovation theory as an analytical lens, we provide a detailed account of how CARE—a global humanitarian and development non-governmental organization—developed and managed the network. We found that context played a strong role and that adaptability therefore was key to successfully recruiting and engaging BOP entrepreneurs and other business partners in the network. Moreover, as members joined the network with past ties and established practices, managing these path dependencies had important implications for network performance. Network sustainability in terms of financial and social impact was also a key theme that required careful consideration throughout network development. We combine these empirical findings with extant literature to discuss contributions to the theory and practice of microfranchising and innovation networking in the BOP context.