Human-wolf Conflict Research Articles

Characterizing wolf-human conflicts in Wisconsin, USA

Management of human–wildlife conflict is a critical component of wildlife conservation globally, especially for large carnivores. Understanding general patterns of conflict can guide management decisions, such as whether or not to consider lethal or nonlethal controls. We used wolf–human conflicts in Wisconsin, USA (1999–2011), to analyze the 4 main classes of conflict typically associated with large carnivores. Of 1,662 reported wolf (Canis lupus) incidents, 801 incidents were verified as wolf. Incidents varied seasonally, with animal husbandry practices and wolf energy demands, and increased over time in absolute numbers. Human safety concerns and nonhunting dog complaints were classified as residential-, wildland-, or farm-associated. Human presence or intervention reduced the likelihood of dog mortality (vs. injury) following a wolf attack. Some wolf packs were primarily implicated in either hunting or nonhunting dog conflicts, with nonhunting dog attacks for the most part being attributable to lone or dispersing wolves. No complaints about aggressive behavior or wolf attacks on humans were investigated during the study period; however, wolves did approach humans at close range (median = 12.5 m) and attacked pets near homes. Wolf–human conflicts cluster spatially, which could be a way to prioritize mitigation efforts. To guide management decisions, managers should determine 1) what behaviors characterize habituated wolves; 2) what characteristics of wolf–human conflict determine whether or not human safety concerns should be considered; and 3) under what conditions should lethal control be implemented. Continued detailed reporting by investigators of wildlife complaints, especially behavioral data on wildlife, domestic animal(s), and complainant, will inform management decisions and facilitate assessment of prior decisions. © 2015 The Wildlife Society.

Indirect effects of changes in environmental and agricultural policies on the diet of wolves

Policies have the potential to affect human–wildlife coexistence. However, despite consequences being evident beforehand or emerging soon after their implementation, potential conflicts between policies and biodiversity conservation are not always easy to predict. Wolves feeding on anthropogenic food sources (AFS) usually fall into conflict with humans, mainly due to predation on livestock. But the availability of AFS can be influenced by different policies leading to diet shifts, which could trigger new conflicts or exacerbate existing ones. Here, we show a long-term shift in the diet of wolves in northwestern Iberia over the last three decades and discuss its potential connection to changes in sanitary, environmental, and socioeconomic policies. Wolves persisted for a long time due to the activity of humans with AFS accounting for >94 % of their diet. Our results suggest a connection between a diet shift in wolves and changes in policies, from a broad diet including more feedlot (pigs, chickens) and medium-sized (goats and dogs) species, mainly in the form of carrion, to a more narrow diet based primarily on large domestic ungulates (cattle and horses). We discuss the potential implications of the observed shift in the diet of wolves on human–wolf conflicts. We also call attention on the pressing need to integrate policies into biodiversity conservation to anticipate future conservation and management dilemmas.

When shooting a coyote kills a wolf: Mistaken identity or misguided management?

The recovery of wolf populations in the United States (U.S.) is hampered by ongoing human-wolf conflicts. In particular, the illegal killing of grey wolves (Canis lupus), red wolves (Canis rufus), and Mexican wolves (Canis lupus baileyi) protected under the U.S. Endangered Species Act has contributed to relatively high mortality rates in some areas. One issue is that wolves are often mistaken as coyotes (Canis latrans) and illegally shot by hunters. To minimise cases of mistaken identity, stricter regulation of coyote hunting is being adopted in some areas where endangered wolves exist. Here we argue that such management should be adopted more widely, and especially in areas where wolves are at low densities or recolonising new areas. Such a proposal may face opposition, particularly where coyote hunting is common, or where coyotes are perceived as a threat to human enterprises such as livestock ranching. Appropriate education and training is needed to ensure that the public is aware that (i) wolves and coyotes are difficult to distinguish from a distance and (ii) coyotes are far too resilient to be affected by most periodic eradication programs, let alone from derbies or recreational hunting. We conclude that recreational hunting of coyotes could restrict wolf recolonisation while providing little benefit to animal agriculture. Consideration of new management strategies is therefore required to assist with wolf restoration efforts and to minimise ongoing human-wildlife conflicts.

Local villagers' perceptions of wolves in Jiuzhaigou County, western China.

While there have been increasing numbers of reports of human-wolf conflict in China during recent years, little is known about the nature of this conflict. In this study, we used questionnaires and semi-structured interviews to investigate local villagers’ perceptions of wolves in Jiuzhaigou County, western China. We sampled nine villages with more frequent reports of wolf depredation to the local government, but included three villages near alpine pastures in which reports of depredation were less frequent. We sampled 100 residents, a subset of the local population who were more likely to have had experience with wolves. During the preceding three years, most families of the respondents grazed livestock on alpine pastures, and most of them reported that their livestock suffered from depredation by wolves. The mean value of the reported annual livestock loss rates was considerably higher in villages that reported depredation more frequently than in those with less frequent reports of depredation. Most respondents in the more frequently depredated villages perceived an increase in wolf populations, whereas many in the less frequently depredated villages perceived a decrease in wolf populations in their areas. People’s attitudes towards wolves did not differ significantly between these two village categories. The majority of the respondents were negative in their attitude to wolves, despite a prevalent Tibetan culture that favors the protection of wildlife. People’s negative attitude was directly related to the number of livestock owned by their family. Those with a larger number of livestock were more likely to have a negative attitude towards wolves. Factors such as village category, ethnicity, age and education level did not influence people’s attitudes to wolves. We suggest that improved guarding of livestock and provision of monetary support on human resources and infrastructure may mitigate human-wolf conflicts in this region.

Predicting the Spatial Distribution of Wolf (Canis lupus) Breeding Areas in a Mountainous Region of Central Italy.

Wolves (Canis lupus) in Italy represent a relict west European population. They are classified as vulnerable by IUCN, though have increased in number and expanded their range in recent decades. Here we use 17 years of monitoring data (from 1993 to 2010) collected in a mountainous region of central Italy (Arezzo, Tuscany) in an ecological niche-based model (MaxEnt) to characterize breeding sites (i.e. the areas where pups were raised) within home ranges, as detected from play-back responses. From a suite of variables related to topography, habitat and human disturbance we found that elevation and distance to protected areas were most important in explaining the locality of wolf responses. Rendezvous sites (family play-back response sites) typically occurred between 800 and 1200 m a.s.l., inside protected areas, and were usually located along mountain chains distant from human settlements and roads. In these areas human disturbance is low and the densities of ungulates are typically high. Over recent years, rendezvous sites have occurred closer to urban areas as the wolf population has continued to expand, despite the consequent human disturbance. This suggests that undisturbed landscapes may be reaching their carrying capacity for wolves. This, in turn, may lead to the potential for increased human-wolf interactions in future. Applying our model, both within and beyond the species’ current range, we identify sites both within the current range and also further afield, that the species could occupy in future. Our work underlines the importance of the present protected areas network in facilitating the recolonisation by wolves. Our projections of suitability of sites for future establishment as the population continues to expand could inform planning to minimize future wolf-human conflicts.

Short-term responses of wolf feeding habits to changes of wild and domestic ungulate abundance in Northern Italy

Long-term changes of wolf feeding habits have been recorded in several parts of its European range and were related to the increase of wild ungulate populations. An increased use of wild prey often is linked to a decrease of predation on livestock, and consequently it can reduce wolf–human conflict and make for easier predator conservation. We analysed wolf diet from scats collected from 2007 to 2012 in a 927.3-km2 area of the Northern Apennines (Northern Italy) to compare the present diet to that recorded in the late 1980s when the area was colonised by wolves, and to examine short-term changes of wolf feeding habits together with annual and seasonal variations of wild and domestic ungulate selection, possibly related to the increase of wild ungulate abundance. We calculated the availability proportions of wild ungulate species from the presence signs recorded on itineraries and those of livestock species from the data on farms of veterinary services. We identified 17 kinds of prey, pooled into six categories, of which wild ungulates (70%) and livestock (20%) were the most important. During the study period, we observed a reduction in the diet breadth of wolves, to a greater use of wild ungulates, depending on the increase in the availability of wild prey species. Significant seasonal variations were observed in the trophic habits of the wolf, but generally there was a wide use of wild ungulates, especially wild boars. Livestock was mainly used in summer, which corresponds to the period of greatest presence of domestic ungulates on the pastures. Considering the study period, a fast response of wolf feeding habits to the increase of wild ungulate species resulted, together with changes in selection patterns. The change in diet towards a greater use of wild ungulates is an important step in the recovery and conservation of the wolf.

Loss of traditional knowledge aggravates wolf-human conflict in Georgia (Caucasus) in the wake of socio-economic change.

Reports of the damage from wolf attacks have increased considerably over the last decade in Georgia (in the Caucasus). We interviewed locals about this problem in two focal regions: the Lanchkhuti area (in western Georgia) and Kazbegi District (in eastern Georgia) where livestock numbers had increased by an order of magnitude owing to dramatic shifts in the local economies over the last decade. This coincided with expanding habitats for wolves (abandoned plantations, for example). We found that the perceived damage from wolves was positively correlated with a poor knowledge of wolf habits and inappropriate livestock husbandry practices. Our results suggest a loss of traditional knowledge contributes strongly to the wolf-human conflicts in Georgia. Restoring traditional, simple but good practices--such as protecting herds using shepherd dogs and introducing bulls into the herds-can help one solve this problem.

Spatial risk model and mitigation implications for wolf–human conflict in a highly modified agroecosystem in western Iran

• We model wolf attacks to livestock and humans using Maximum Entropy. • Anthropogenic modifications of the landscape increase the risk of wolf attacks. • Attacks on humans mostly depend on the proportion of farmlands in the landscape. • Attacks on livestock mostly depend on distance to settlements and protected areas. Human–carnivore conflict is hampering carnivore conservation worldwide. Conflicts between humans and wolves ( Canis lupus ) in western Iran, especially Hamedan province (HP), occur in the form of livestock depredation and predatory attacks on people. These conflicts have become a major concern for the lives and livelihoods of the local people as well as an obstacle for conservation of the wolf. To determine the most important predictors of such conflicts and to identify the distribution of areas with potential risk of wolf attack on humans and livestock in HP, we employed Maximum Entropy (Maxent) algorithm to build predictive models with reported conflict data from 2001 to 2010. The resulting models correctly assigned subsequent attack sites from 2011 and 2012 to high-risk areas. We found that variables related to land use/cover types affected by anthropogenic influences on the landscape, such as irrigated farms and human settlements, were the most important in predicting wolf attack risk levels. The risk maps developed in this study are useful tools for identifying conflict hotspots and facilitate policymaking and action planning for conflict mitigation in western Iran.

Landscape predictors of wolf attacks on bear-hunting dogs in Wisconsin, USA

Context In Europe and the United States, wolf–human conflict has increased as wolf populations have recovered and recolonised human-dominated ecosystems. These conflicts may lead to negative attitudes towards wolves and often complicate wolf management. Wolf attacks on bear-hunting hounds (hereafter, hounds) are the second-most common type of depredation on domestic animals in Wisconsin, USA, and, typically, the most costly in terms of compensation per individual animal. Understanding the geospatial patterns in which these depredations occur could promote alternative hunting practices or management strategies that could reduce the number of wolf–human conflicts. Aims We compared variables differentiating between wolf attacks on hounds and non-hounds (e.g., pets), we constructed a spatial, predictive model of wolf attacks on hounds, and we explored how the landscape of risk changed over time. Methods We characterised landscape features of hound depredations using logistic regression. We applied the spatial model to a geographic information system (GIS) to display spatial patterns and to predict areas of risk for wolf attack. Key results Our model correctly classified 84% of sites of past depredations, 1999–2008, and 78% of nearby random-unaffected sites. The model correctly predicted 82% of recent (2009–11) depredation sites not used in model construction, thereby validating its predictive power. Risk of wolf attack on hounds increased with percentage area of public-access land nearby, size of the nearest wolf pack, proximity of the nearest wolf pack, and decreased with percentage of human development. National and county forest lands had significantly (P < 0.001) more hound depredations than did other land-ownership types, whereas private lands had significantly fewer. Conclusions Risk of wolf attacks on hounds had distinctive temporal and spatial signatures, with peak risk occurring during the black bear hound training and hunting seasons and in areas closer to the centre of wolf pack territories, with larger wolf packs and more public access land and less developed land. Implications Our analysis can help bear hunters avoid high-risk areas, and help wildlife managers protect wildlife and recreational use of public lands, and reduce public costs of predator recovery. We present a risk-adjusted compensation equation. If wildlife managers choose, or are required, to provide compensation for hounds attacked by wolves, while hunting on public lands, we suggest that managers consider adjusting compensation payments on the basis of the relative landscape of risk.

Wolves, Lone and Pack: Ojibwe Treaty Rights and the Wisconsin Wolf Hunt

In 2012, Wisconsin authorized the first state hunt of gray wolves. Wisconsin’s interest in wolf depredation is legitimate: the growth in wolf population has exponentially increased human-wolf conflicts and state expense. Yet, Wisconsin shares these wolves; 83 percent of gray wolves reside on Ojibwe reservations or on territory ceded by the Ojibwe, where the Tribes still have resource rights. The Tribes vehemently oppose the wolf hunt. The Ojibwe maintain a strong cultural kinship with wolves and have traditionally prohibited wolf hunting. The Tribes named wolves a “tribally protected species,” asserting a right to protect all the wolves shared with Wisconsin. Historically, the Tribes and the State cooperatively managed shared resources. However, the State initiated the wolf hunt despite tribal protestations, instigating the first break from cooperative management in decades. Both sovereigns have legitimate and conflicting interests and appear to risk their first major treaty rights litigation in decades. This Comment analyzes the extent of each sovereign’s wolf rights in light of biological research and existing Indian law precedents. The first issue is the scope of the State’s obligation to respect the Tribes’ sovereign rights to protect and perpetuate reservation wolf packs. The second issue is the extent of the Tribes’ rights to protect ceded-territory wolves away from reservations. This Comment argues that the Tribes can protect and perpetuate reservation wolves as a component of inherent sovereignty. Wisconsin must implement a wolf policy that respects that sovereignty, including a hunt-free “buffer zone” of some wolf territory directly adjoining the reservation. However, the Tribes’ claim to protect all shared wolves is untenable, as tribal rights over wolves away from the reservation are much weaker. But the Tribes have rights correlated to those wolves and are entitled, at minimum, to a policy that ensures species survival; additionally, the Tribes can consider other options to protect wolves. Ultimately, this Comment proposes that both sovereigns can and should resolve this conflict through negotiation, continuing the tradition of cooperative management, and avoiding lengthy and expensive litigation.

Predation by grey wolf on wild ungulates and livestock in centralIran

AbstractThe grey wolfCanis lupushas the largest geographical range of large mammalian carnivores in westAsia. However, it is one of the least studied species, particularly inIran. Feeding ecology is a critical aspect of predator ecology and has important implications when formulating species and ecosystem management strategies. Also, predation on livestock is a crucial cause of wolf–human conflicts throughout the wolf's global range. Accordingly, we investigated the diet of the grey wolf inGhamishlou, an area with high population densities of wild and domestic ungulates in centralIran, betweenJuly 2007 andApril 2009. Scat analysis indicated that livestock was the single most important prey species for wolves with 47.1% of total biomass consumed, whereas Persian gazelle comprised 27.0% and wild sheep 15.9%. Wild kills were significantly skewed towards males relative to their proportion in the population, and were mainly preyed on during post‐rutting months. Based on interview surveys, less than 1% of mean herd size was lost to wolf depredation; however, almost six times more died from non‐depredation causes during each winter. We concluded that the high occurrence of livestock in the wolves' diet is mainly because of scavenging rather than depredation; however, owing to high pressure of wolves on local herds during non‐winter seasons in other areas with depleted prey populations, local people dislike wolves and try to eradicate them. Finally, management implications are discussed and solutions are recommended.

Selection of wild ungulates by wolves Canis lupus (L. 1758) in an area of the Northern Apennines (North Italy)

We investigated the patterns of wild ungulate selection by wolves in an 860 km2 study area of the Northern Apennines (North Italy), in order to detect seasonal variation in wolf diet and changes of feeding habits in relation to the increased abundance of wild ungulates. From June 2007 to May 2008 we collected wolf scats and recorded the signs of presence of wild ungulate species along 25 transects, representative of the different habitat types within the study area. We analysed the scats to identify the main food items used by wolves in each season and we compared the proportions of biomass of wild ungulate species in the diet (use) to those calculated from the signs of presence (availability). We recorded significant seasonal changes in wolf feeding habits, but the main food items were wild ungulates, mainly wild boars, and medium-sized mammals. Livestock (sheep, goats, and calves) were used only in summer and early autumn, during the grazing period, in small quantities. Comparing the current diet of wolves to that recorded in the past in the same study area highlighted significant differences for wild ungulates and livestock, the former being more used nowadays and the latter less. Our study showed that, in the Northern Apennines, the feeding behaviour of wolves has evolved towards a greater use of wild prey, so reducing the impact on livestock and consequently wolf-human conflicts. Moreover, predation by wolves was directed towards the most abundant species of wild ungulates.

Non-invasive Integrated Sampling Design to Monitor the Wolf Population in Piemonte, Italian Alps

The natural return of the wolf (Canis lupus) in the western Alps of Italy and France at the beginning of the 1990’s, after 70 years of absence, is an important ecological and social event. The Regione Piemonte, in the course of the Progetto Lupo Piemonte, intensively monitored the wolf population over the Piemonte territory from 1999 to 2010. We estimated four main population parameters over time (wolf population size, number of packs, distribution, and eective population size) in order to follow the natural recolonization process over the Alps. An integrated sampling approach was designed to collect data to estimate simultaneously and cost-eectively these four parameters. This combined monitoring program allowed the development of specific management strategies for the mitigation of wolfhuman conflicts, given the protected status of the alpine wolf population. This transboundary wolf population, which dispersed over the Alps of Italy, France, Switzerland, and now is reaching the Eastern Alps, has been considered a unique and distinct entity by the European Commission after the “Guidelines for Population Level Management Plans for large Carnivores”. Therefore, it should be monitored and managed as such over the boundaries, and this cost-eective sampling approach should be considered in this framework.

Cultural dimension of wolves in the Iberian Peninsula: implications of ethnozoology in conservation biology

In the Iberian Peninsula, the coexistence between pastoral communities and wolves has given origin to a rich ethnographic heritage, expressed in myths and legends, practices related to medical uses of wolf parts, and constructions for hunting wolves. This article assesses such cultural dimension through interviews with inhabitants, field prospecting and a literature review. Our review indicates that cultural manifestations related to wolves are associated with two distinct perceptions of this carnivore: as a real threat to livestock and as a symbolic creature. This cultural legacy is still present in the memory and practices of Iberian rural communities and is unparalleled in other European regions. Ethnographic knowledge can enhance our understanding of the perceptions of local people towards the wolf and help to promote the recreational and utilitarian value of this species as an important element in rural culture and tradition. Such an approach can be crucial in attenuating wolf–human conflict in humanized areas and consequently should be incorporated in wolf conservation and management programs.

An integrated program to prevent, mitigate and compensate wolf ( Canis lupus ) damage in Piedmont region (northern Italy)

Wolves’ natural recolonization in the Western Alps in the early 1990s resulted in increased in depredation events. The Piedmont Regional Administration has been running a program aimed at monitoring the wolf expansion process and mitigating the human-wolf conflict since 1999. Three key actions, i)compensationofcanids(wolfanddog)damage; ii)asubsidysystem to promote good livestock husbandry practices; iii) promotion of preventive measures, were used to prevent and compensate damage caused by wolves. Direct damage was verified by veterinarians and refunded according to an annually updated price list. In addition indirect losses were compensated on a lump-sum basis proportional to the herd size for each attack. Since 2007 a subsidy system has rewarded shepherds who, pasturing within the home range of wolf packs and in neighbouring areas, have adopted good management practices and preventive measures. Ad hoc damage prevention plans have mainly addressed chronic situations. Changes in animal husbandry (removal of dead livestock from pastures, confiningsickanimals, synchronizingbirthsandusingshedlambing), promotion of use of electric fences and introduction of livestock guarding dogs (LGDs) have been the most common interventions. A new model of electrified net has been developed and LGDs have been selected and diffused; LGDs behavioural research is in progress. The Regional wolf Program integrates dierent measures to manage the human-wolf conflict: not only to compensate depredation damages, but also to stimulate the adoption of husbandry practices compatible with the presence of wolves. Actually, in order to promote wolf tolerance by livestock owners, theProgramaimedtodistributewolfconservationcostsmoreequitably and involve farmers in decisional processes.

Death from anthropogenic causes is partially compensatory in recovering wolf populations

There is substantial interest in how mortality rates affect animal populations, but mechanisms explaining when and under what circumstances particular causes of death incur demographic responses are far from clear. In theory, small or expanding populations should experience additive mortality from anthropogenic causes of death, but whether such effects are homogenous across a population or expressed only in certain high-risk individuals is open for debate. We used competing risks models to analyze mortality patterns among radio-collared wolves ( Canis lupus, n = 711) from three populations in northwestern United States (1982–2004), and evaluated the degree to which anthropogenic mortality was additive vs. compensatory to natural demographic processes. Almost 80% ( n = 320) of wolves dying of known fates were killed by anthropogenic causes (legal control, illegal killing, harvest in Canada, vehicle collision), and additive effects of anthropogenic mortality were most pronounced in northwestern Montana where wolf exposure to humans and livestock was high compared to either the Greater Yellowstone Area or central Idaho, where anthropogenic risk was lower. In contrast, risk from natural hazards was lower in northwestern Montana than in the other areas, implying some degree of compensatory mortality from anthropogenic risk. Animals recruited to the study following human–wolf conflict had markedly higher anthropogenic risk than those recruited for standard monitoring purposes, and juvenile wolves as well as dispersers, succumbed to higher anthropogenic risk. Multivariate models revealed that increasing wolf population density promoted higher anthropogenic risk and reduced natural risk, indicating that partially-compensatory effects of anthropogenic mortality actually became increasingly additive with population density. The observed compensatory mortality and hazard heterogeneity in our study implies that demographic responses to mortality risk may be complex and more subtle than previously thought; the density-dependent effect of anthropogenic mortality portends a stabilizing influence of humans on recovering wolf populations. We conclude that future assessment of the role of anthropogenic mortality should include individual-based hazard estimation as a complement to traditional population-level approaches.

Predicting spatio‐temporal recolonization of large carnivore populations and livestock depredation risk: wolves in the Italian Alps

Summary 1. Wolves Canis lupus recently recolonized the Western Alps through dispersal from the Italian Apennines, representing one of several worldwide examples of large carnivores increasing in highly human‐dominated landscapes. Understanding and predicting expansion of this population is important for conservation because of its direct impact on livestock and its high level of societal opposition. 2. We built a predictive, spatially explicit, individual‐based model to examine wolf population expansion in this fragmented landscape, and livestock depredation risk. We developed the model based on known demographic processes, social structure, behaviour and habitat selection of wolves collected during a 10‐year intensive field study of this wolf population. 3. During model validation, our model accurately described the recolonization process within the Italian Alps, correctly predicting wolf pack locations, pack numbers and wolf population size, between 1999 and 2008. 4. We then projected packs and dispersers over the entire Italian Alps for 2013, 2018 and 2023. We predicted 25 packs (95% CI: 19–32) in 2013, 36 (23–47) in 2018 and 49 (29–68) in 2023. The South‐Western Alps were the main source for wolves repopulating the Alps from 1999 to 2008. The source area for further successful dispersers will probably shift to the North‐Western Alps after 2008, but the large lakes in the Central Alps will probably act as a spatial barrier slowing the wolf expansion. 5. Using the pack presence forecasts, we estimated spatially explicit wolf depredation risk on livestock, allowing tailored local and regional management actions. 6. Synthesis and applications. Our predictive model is novel because we follow the spatio‐temporal dynamics of packs, not just population size, which have substantially different requirements and impacts on wolf–human conflicts than wandering dispersers. Our approach enables prioritization of management efforts, including minimizing livestock depredations, identifying important corridors and barriers, and locating future source populations for successful wolf recolonization of the Alps.

People and wildlife: conflict or coexistence?

Foreword John G. Robinson 1. The impact of human-wildlife conflict on natural systems Rosie Woodroffe, Simon Thirgood and Alan Rabinowitz 2. The impact of human-wildlife conflict on human lives and livelihoods Simon Thirgood, Rosie Woodroffe and Alan Rabinowitz 3. Characterisation and prevention of attacks on humans Howard Quigley and Stephen Herrero 4. Non-lethal techniques for reducing depredation Urs Breitenmoser, Christof Angst, Jean-Marc Landry, Christine Breitenmoser-Wursten, John D. C. Linnell and Jean-Marc Weber 5. Techniques to reduce crop loss: human and technical dimensions in Africa F. V. Osborn and C. M. Hill 6. Evaluating lethal control in the management of human-wildlife conflict Adrian Treves and Lisa Naughton-Treves 7. Bearing the cost of human-wildlife conflict: the challenges of compensation schemes Philip J. Nyhus, Steven A. Osofsky, Paul Ferraro, Francine Madden and Hank Fischer 8. Increasing the value of wildlife through non-consumptive use? Deconstructing the myths of ecotourism and community-based tourism in the tropics M. J. Walpole and C. R. Thouless 9. Does extractive use provide opportunities to offset conflicts between people and wildlife? N. Leader-Williams and J. M. Hutton 10. Zoning as a means of mitigating conflicts with large carnivores: principles and reality John D. C. Linnell, Erlend Birkeland Nilsen, Unni Stobet Lande, Ivar Herfindal, John Odden, Ketil Skogen, Reidar Andersen and Urs Breitenmoser 11. From conflict to coexistence: a case study of geese and agriculture in Scotland David Cope, Juliet Vickery and Marcus Rowcliffe 12. Hen harriers and red grouse: the ecology of a conflict Simon Thirgood and Steve Redpath 13. Understanding and resolving the black-tailed prairie dog conservation challenge Richard P. Reading, Lauren McCain, Tim W. Clark and Brian J. Miller 14. People and elephants in Shimba Hills, Kenya Timothy J. Knickerbocker and John Waithaka 15. Safari hunting and conservation on communal land in southern Africa Dale Lewis and John Jackson 16. Socioecological factors shaping local support for wildlife: crop raiding by elephants and other wildlife in Africa Lisa Naughton-Treves and Adrian Treves 17. Jaguars and livestock: living with the world's third largest cat Alan Rabinowitz 18. People and predators in Laikipia District, Kenya Laurence G. Frank, Rosie Woodroffe and Mordecai O. Ogada 19. Searching for the coexistence recipe: a case study of conflicts between people and tigers in the Russian far east Dale Miquelle, Igor Nikolaev, John Goodrich, Boris Litvinov, Evgeny Smirnov and Evgeny Suvorov 20. A tale of two countries: large carnivore depredations and compensation schemes in Sweden and Norway Jon E. Swenson and Henrik Andren 21. Managing wolf-human conflict in the northwestern United States Edward E. Bangs, Joseph A. Fontaine, Michael D. Jimenez, Thomas J. Meier, Elizabeth H. Bradley, Carter C. Niemeyer, Douglas W. Smith, Curt M. Mack, Val Asher and John K. Oakleaf 22. Policies for reducing human-wildlife conflict: a Kenya case study David Western and John Waithaka 23. An ecology-based policy framework for human-tiger coexistence in India K. Ullas Karanth and Rajesh Gopal 24. The future of coexistence: resolving human-wildlife conflicts in a changing world Rosie Woodroffe, Simon Thirgood and Alan Rabinowitz.

Are Viable Non-Lethal Management Tools Available for Reducing Wolf-Human Conflict? Preliminary Results from Field Experiments

Author(s): Gehring, Thomas M.; Hawley, Jason E.; Davidson, Sarah J.; Rossler, Shawn T.; Cellar, Anna C.; Schultz, Ronald N.; Wydeven, Adrian P.; VerCauteren, Kurt C. | Abstract: Wolf-caused depredation results in substantial economic loss to individual farmers and can lead to greater public animosity towards wolves (i.e., reduction in social tolerance) and the agencies that manage depredations. Using an experimental design in field trials, we are testing shock collars, fladry, and livestock guarding dogs to determine if they are effective in reducing wolf use of areas in Wisconsin and Michigan. During 2003-2004, we equipped 5 wolves with shock collars and found that a 14-day shock period resulted in a decline in wolf use of baited sites by 50% compared to control wolves that increased visitation to baited sites by 18%. During 2005, we found that all pack members in shock-collared wolf packs (n = 5) avoided shock sites for over 60 days after being exposed to a 40-day shock period. During 2004-2005, we found that fladry offered farms at least 90 days of protection from wolves. During 2006-2008, we are conducting field trials with livestock guarding dogs on Michigan farms using an experimental design protocol and additional field trials of shock collars in Wisconsin. Our preliminary data suggest that shock collars and fladry may reduce wolf use of areas within their pack territories. Results of this research will provide important guidelines for implementing potential non-lethal management measures in areas wolves have recolonized or will likely recolonize in the near future and/or where wolves are being reintroduced.

Foraging ecology, economics and conservation of Indian wolves in the Bhal region of Gujarat, Western India

We determined the food habits of the endangered Indian wolf Canis lupus pallipes in the Bhal region of Gujarat, western India by analyzing 1246 wolf scats from five packs by estimating prey availability and by monitoring radio-tagged wolves from three packs for 1994 hour. The frequency of occurrence of blackbuck Antelope cervicapra remains in scats was 55.5%, followed by cattle (25.7%), nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus (6.3%); and as others (<5%). The frequency of food items in scats of different wolf packs reflected their relative availability. For cattle the distinction between scavenging and predation was only possible through continuous monitoring. The average feeding interval obtained from monitoring was 3.6± 0.7 (S.E.) days and the average consumption/wolf/day was 1.8± 0.3 (S.E.) Kg. Adult male blackbuck formed most (70%) of the biomass consumed by wolves whereas cattle carcasses and cattle actually killed by wolves contributed 14 and 8%, respectively. Predation on cattle therefore was low and translated in an estimated loss of Rs. 821 (US$ 17) per village per annum. We propose that landscapes such as the Bhal with high wolf densities, high natural prey availability and consequently low human-wolf conflict levels should be prioritized as prime sites for wolf conservation efforts.