Human Persecution Research Articles

Hematology of Wild Lake Erie Watersnakes (Nerodia sipedon insularum) with Natural Ophidiomycosis

Habitat loss, human persecution, and infectious diseases all threaten declining reptile populations. Lake Erie watersnakes (Nerodia sipedon insularum, LEWS), once classified as an endangered species in part due to human persecution, have recovered to stable population levels but have been observed with a high prevalence of ophidiomycosis. Strategies are needed to mitigate the current disease threat, including assessing overall wellness. Hematologic analysis provides information about the presence of inflammation and infection and thus informs health-based conservation efforts, but has not been previously performed in LEWS. The objective of this study was to evaluate hematologic parameters in LEWS and identify differences based on ophidiomycosis status. Blood was drawn from wild-caught snakes at nine sites in 2018 and 2019 and complete blood counts were performed in 180 individuals. For apparently healthy snakes, packed cell volume was significantly higher in males (median = 32.5%) compared to females (median = 26.5%; P = 0.03). Animals classified as having possible or apparent ophidiomycosis, or those with skin lesions, had a relative azurophilia and lymphopenia compared to individuals classified as negative or Ophidiomyces present, or those without skin lesions (P < 0.01). This is the first study to investigate hematology in a free-ranging population of LEWS and will serve as a baseline for future investigations that aim to improve conservation efforts through population health monitoring.

Conventional wisdom on roosting behavior of Australian flying-foxes-A critical review, and evaluation using new data.

Fruit bats (Family: Pteropodidae) are animals of great ecological and economic importance, yet their populations are threatened by ongoing habitat loss and human persecution. A lack of ecological knowledge for the vast majority of Pteropodid species presents additional challenges for their conservation and management.In Australia, populations of flying‐fox species (Genus: Pteropus) are declining and management approaches are highly contentious. Australian flying‐fox roosts are exposed to management regimes involving habitat modification, through human–wildlife conflict management policies, or vegetation restoration programs. Details on the fine‐scale roosting ecology of flying‐foxes are not sufficiently known to provide evidence‐based guidance for these regimes, and the impact on flying‐foxes of these habitat modifications is poorly understood.We seek to identify and test commonly held understandings about the roosting ecology of Australian flying‐foxes to inform practical recommendations and guide and refine management practices at flying‐fox roosts.We identify 31 statements relevant to understanding of flying‐fox roosting structure and synthesize these in the context of existing literature. We then contribute a contemporary, fine‐scale dataset on within‐roost structure to further evaluate 11 of these statements. The new dataset encompasses 13‐monthly repeat measures from 2,522 spatially referenced roost trees across eight sites in southeastern Queensland and northeastern New South Wales.We show evidence of sympatry and indirect competition between species, including spatial segregation of black and grey‐headed flying‐foxes within roosts and seasonal displacement of both species by little red flying‐foxes. We demonstrate roost‐specific annual trends in occupancy and abundance and provide updated demographic information including the spatial and temporal distributions of males and females within roosts.Insights from our systematic and quantitative study will be important to guide evidence‐based recommendations on restoration and management and will be crucial for the implementation of priority recovery actions for the preservation of these species in the future.

Limited influence of hunting on the activity patterns and habitat use of Pampas fox (Lycalopex gymnocercus) in agroecosystems of central Argentina

The Pampas fox (Lycalopex gymnocercus) has suffered from hunting and human persecution for decades, both for fur trade or due to conflicts with livestock. However, studies assessing the effects of hunting pressure on this canid population ecology are lacking. In this work, we assessed the influence of several hunting-related variables on the daily activity patterns and habitat use of the Pampas fox. In private farms of central Argentina, we performed two camera-trapping surveys: one during the non-hunting season and other during the hunting season, distinguishing between sites with or without access by hunters. The habitat use of Pampas foxes did not vary between seasons, but their detectability was lower during the hunting season in habitats that allow humans to see foxes easily (i.e., habitats with high visibility). Pampas foxes selected dusk and night-time, increasing their activity at dusk hours on sites with hunting and showed differences in activity patterns related with the level of visibility of the habitat and to season. Hunting pressure may interact with anthropogenic habitat modifications and create ecological traps for the Pampas fox in agroecosystems.

Understanding Human–Canid Conflict and Coexistence: Socioeconomic Correlates Underlying Local Attitude and Support Toward the Endangered Dhole (Cuon alpinus) in Bhutan

Understanding human–canid conflict and coexistence must focus on documenting human–canid interactions and identifying the underlying drivers of reciprocal human attitude which enables appropriate strategies to minimize conflict and forge coexistence. The dhole (Cuon alpinus), Asia's most widely distributed wild canid, is highly threatened by human persecution and anthropogenic activities. Despite its “endangered” status, its ecological role as an apex predator, negative interactions with humans, and dhole-specific attitude studies are limited, thus hindering the development of a comprehensive dhole-conservation strategy. Here, we investigate the influence of socioeconomic factors of age, gender, income, residency inside/outside a protected area (PA), and other variables (cultural beliefs, livestock loss, and quantity of livestock loss) on the attitudes of local people and support for dhole conservation in the Himalayan Kingdom of Bhutan. We conducted a semi-structured questionnaire survey of 1,444 households located within the PA and non-PA from four representative regions in the country. Using R programming, we ran Pearson's chi-square test of independence to test the overall difference in the attitude and support for dhole conservation, followed by recursive partitioning through a conditional inference regression tree to identify its significant covariates with the highest explanatory power. Majority (79.1%) of respondents (χ2 = 488.6; df = 1; p &amp;lt; 0.001) disliked the dhole over those who liked it. More than half (57.7%) (χ2 = 412.7; df = 2; p &amp;lt; 0.001) opposed dhole conservation over those who either supported or remained neutral. Experience of livestock loss to dholes was the primary ( p &amp;lt; 0.001) factor influencing the negative attitude and opposition to dhole conservation, despite an acknowledgment of the ecological role of the dhole in controlling agricultural crop predators. Our study, which is the first-ever survey in Bhutan, solely focused on investigating human attitudes and perceptions toward the dhole, indicating that livestock loss to dholes transcends all positive attitudes to the species and drives a predominant dislike and opposition to its conservation. To improve the attitude and support toward the dhole and to foster dhole–human coexistence, livestock predation by dholes needs alleviation by improving the existing animal husbandry, in conjunction with promoting conservation awareness on this species.

A sliver of the past: The decimation of the genetic diversity of the Mexican wolf.

The endangered Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) is known to carry exceedingly low levels of genetic diversity. This could be (i) the result of long-term evolutionary patterns as they exist at the southernmost limit of the species distribution at a relatively reduced effective size, or (ii) due to rapid population decline caused by human persecution over the last century. If the former, purifying selection is expected to have minimized the impact of inbreeding. If the latter, rapid and recent declines in genetic diversity may have resulted in severe fitness consequences. To differentiate these hypotheses, we conducted comparative whole-genome analyses of five historical Mexican wolves (1907-1917) and 18 contemporary Mexican and grey wolves from North America and Eurasia. Based on whole-genome data, historical and modern Mexican wolves together form a discrete unit. Moreover, we found that modern Mexican wolves have reduced genetic diversity and increased inbreeding relative to the historical population, which was widespread across the southwestern United States and not restricted to Mexico as previously assumed. Finally, although Mexican wolves have evolved in sympatry with coyotes (C. latrans), we observed lower introgression between historical Mexican wolves and coyotes than with modern Mexican wolves, despite similarities in body size. Taken together, our data show that recent population declines probably caused the reduced level of genetic diversity, but not the observed differentiation of the Mexican wolves from other North American wolves.

The selection of anthropogenic habitat by wildlife as an ecological consequence of rural exodus: empirical examples from Spain

The increasing urbanization of the landscape is a major component of global change worldwide. However, it is puzzling that wildlife is selecting anthropogenic habitats despite the availability of apparently high–quality semi–natural (i.e. less intensively modified) habitats. Definitive explanations for this process are still lacking. We have previously suggested that colonization of the urban habitat is initially triggered by ecological processes that take place outside urban areas as a consequence of past rural exodus. Here we present a diverse array of examples of selection of several types of anthropogenic habitat by wildlife in Spain (including transportation infrastructure, human–exclusion areas, urban areas under construction, cities, reservoirs, quarries and landfills) in support of this idea. Wildlife is moving out of its historical ecological refuges and losing fear of harmless urban humans. Mesopredators are rebounding by mesopredator release, due to ceased human persecution, and shrubs and trees are claiming former agricultural habitats. Together, these factors force many species to move to urbanized areas where they find open habitats, food associated with these habitats, and protection against predation. Hence, the classical balance of costs and benefits that takes place once inside urban areas, would actually be a second step of the process of colonization of urban areas. A better understanding of the initial triggers of urban colonization could help us increase the biological value of human–made habitats for wildlife in the future.

Human Persecution of the Harpy Eagle: A Widespread Threat?

Human Persecution of the Harpy Eagle: A Widespread Threat?

Conserving an Endangered Canid: Assessing Distribution, Habitat Protection, and Connectivity for the Dhole (Cuon alpinus) in Bhutan

Most canids face population declines and range contractions worldwide. Although the dhole (Cuon alpinus) is widely distributed across 10 countries in South and Southeast Asia, limited studies exist on this species. Despite its globally “Endangered” status and ecological role as an apex predator, assessments on its distribution are limited to a few landscapes and countries. This explains the lack of a dhole-specific species conservation plan in most range countries, including Bhutan where no current population estimate exists. The species has also recovered from a country-wide poisoning campaign in the 1970s and 80s. In this study, we determine the dhole's distribution pattern and assess the protection and connectivity of dhole habitat in Bhutan. We anticipated dholes to be extant within their habitat well-represented in protected areas (PAs) and biological corridors (BCs). We used 721 georeferenced dhole occurrence records and eight environmental variables in MaxEnt software to model potential dhole distribution and habitat suitability. The model output was overlaid on the spatial layers of PAs and BCs to assess habitat protection and connectivity. As anticipated, we found the dhole widely distributed in all districts, PAs, and BCs in Bhutan. Dholes were recorded at the highest elevation range limit of 4,980 m above sea level, which overlapped with the “Vulnerable” snow leopard (Panthera uncia). Our model identified 72% (27,634 km2) of the country as suitable areas for dholes, of which, 31% (11,899 km2) was highly suitable and 41% (15,735 km2) was moderately suitable. Contrary to our expectation, PAs and BCs encompassed only 29% (8,046 km2) and 12% (3,185 km2) of suitable areas for dholes, respectively. A vast majority of the areas we deemed suitable for dholes currently remain unprotected, thus making dholes more vulnerable to human persecution and local extermination. We recommend adjusting PA boundaries to fully encompass suitable dhole habitat, and also advocate improved livestock husbandry to reduce dhole related livestock predation and minimize conflict, thereby ensuring its long-term survival in Bhutan.

Declines in an Augur Buzzard Buteo augur Population in a Region of Increasing Human Development

As with many areas in Africa, Kenya has witnessed rapid human development in recent decades, including an increase in urbanization and an intensification of agriculture. The impact of these land use changes on wildlife populations have, however, rarely been examined. The Augur Buzzard is a widespread raptor species, thought to adapt relatively well to human alterations of habitat. In this study, we explore trends in Augur Buzzard (Buteo augur) territory occupancy over nearly two decades around Lake Naivasha, Kenya, in relation to land-use changes, particularly expansion in human housing and flower farms. We hypothesized that these changes would cause population declines in this species within our study area. Using remote-sensed satellite imagery, we found that human development (agriculture and human settlement) increased from 9 to 24% of the study area from 1995 to 2014. We found a 47% decline in active territories over this same time period, representing an annualized decline of 3.1%. Based on the length of three generations this would qualify this species to be uplisted to at least Vulnerable in our study area, raising our concerns that the same pattern may be occurring across the species’ range. We then explored whether abandonment of individual territories was associated with either (i) the current amount or (ii) the change in human development within a range of buffer circles of varying radii (0.1–5.0 km). Contrary to our expectations, no associations were found between human development and territorial abandonment, and thus we could not attribute specific territorial abandonment to these broad scale anthropogenic land cover changes. We encourage further research to investigate whether territorial abandonment may be associated with either finer resolution (habitat specific) changes, or sources of direct mortality, for example human persecution or electrocutions. These factors might explain the decline in this population better than broader scale increases in anthropogenic land cover.

Changes from Cliff- to Tree-Nesting in Raptors: A Response to Lower Human Persecution?

Changes from Cliff- to Tree-Nesting in Raptors: A Response to Lower Human Persecution?

Identifying priority areas for landscape connectivity for three large carnivores in northwestern Mexico and southwestern United States

Large carnivores are crucial to ecosystem functioning, as they enhance the biodiversity of the native communities in which they live. However, most large carnivores are threatened with extinction resulting from human persecution, habitat encroachment, and the loss of habitat connectivity. To identify areas that favor landscape connectivity for three large carnivores within and between northwestern Mexico and southwestern United States. We performed a habitat suitability analysis for puma (Puma concolor), Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi), and black bear (Ursus americanus) by combining ecological niche modeling with anthropogenic variables to identify high-quality habitat patches to be connected. We also developed a connectivity analysis to identify smaller suitable habitat patches within connecting corridors to evaluate their contributions to connecting larger populations. We found existing large, high-quality areas in Mexico and the United States that could connect through smaller patches. Likewise, we identified pinch-point areas, patches and links with high centrality, indicating that some biological corridors promote connectivity among the most extensive suitable patches. It is possible to maintain and even enhance adequate landscape connectivity between major suitable habitat patches for the three large carnivores, within and between their distributional areas in Mexico and the United States. In this regard, decision-makers, academia, and civil society need to strengthen their bonds to reduce the pressure on these carnivores and help authorities improve binational plans and agreements to consolidate conservation actions and landscape connectivity between Mexico and the United States.

Large carnivore expansion in Europe is associated with human population density and land cover changes

AbstractAimThe recent recovery of large carnivores in Europe has been explained as resulting from a decrease in human persecution driven by widespread rural land abandonment, paralleled by forest cover increase and the consequent increase in availability of shelter and prey. We investigated whether land cover and human population density changes are related to the relative probability of occurrence of three European large carnivores: the grey wolf (Canis lupus), the Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) and the brown bear (Ursus arctos).LocationEurope, west of 64° longitude.MethodsWe fitted multi‐temporal species distribution models using &gt;50,000 occurrence points with time series of land cover, landscape configuration, protected areas, hunting regulations and human population density covering a 24‐year period (1992–2015). Within the temporal window considered, we then predicted changes in habitat suitability for large carnivores throughout Europe.ResultsBetween 1992 and 2015, the habitat suitability for the three species increased in Eastern Europe, the Balkans, North‐West Iberian Peninsula and Northern Scandinavia, but showed mixed trends in Western and Southern Europe. These trends were primarily associated with increases in forest cover and decreases in human population density, and, additionally, with decreases in the cover of mosaics of cropland and natural vegetation.Main conclusionsRecent land cover and human population changes appear to have altered the habitat suitability pattern for large carnivores in Europe, whereas protection level did not play a role. While projected changes largely match the observed recovery of large carnivore populations, we found mismatches with the recent expansion of wolves in Central and Southern Europe, where factors not included in our models may have played a dominant role. This suggests that large carnivores’ co‐existence with humans in European landscapes is not limited by habitat availability, but other factors such as favourable human tolerance and policy.

Corrigendum to: Conservation of quolls (Dasyurus spp.) in captivity – a review

Quolls are carnivorous marsupials in the family Dasyuridae with characteristic white spots. They are distributed throughout Australia and New Guinea, but uncommonly seen due to their mostly nocturnal solitary nature, and large home ranges. All Australian quolls are listed as ‘near threatened' or ‘endangered' at state, national and international levels, largely due to human-induced threats. Threats include introduced predators, habitat loss through clearing and modifications including changed fire regimes, disease, human persecution, vehicle collisions and accidental or targeted poisoning by humans and cane toads (Rhinella marina). Conservation efforts that have focussed on reducing introduced predators, and minimising the impact of cane toads, have aided some translocations, hence species recovery in some local areas of Australia has occurred. Where species conservation has required captive breeding for translocation, successful captive management has been crucial. We summarise research conducted in captivity on aspects of birth and development, health and disease, and blood and nutrition parameters of quolls, and suggest future directions for research. Further research on captive and wild quoll populations will benefit future translocations, reintroductions and conservation through increased knowledge, improved maintenance and husbandry of captive colonies, and monitoring of wild populations.

Conservation of quolls (Dasyurus spp.) in captivity – a review

Quolls are carnivorous marsupials in the family Dasyuridae with characteristic white spots. They are distributed throughout Australia and New Guinea, but uncommonly seen due to their mostly nocturnal solitary nature, and large home ranges. All Australian quolls are listed as ‘near threatened’ or ‘endangered’ at state, national and international levels, largely due to human-induced threats. Threats include introduced predators, habitat loss through clearing and modifications including changed fire regimes, disease, human persecution, vehicle collisions and accidental or targeted poisoning by humans and cane toads (Rhinella marina). Conservation efforts that have focussed on reducing introduced predators, and minimising the impact of cane toads, have aided some translocations, hence species recovery in some local areas of Australia has occurred. Where species conservation has required captive breeding for translocation, successful captive management has been crucial. We summarise research conducted in captivity on aspects of birth and development, health and disease, and blood and nutrition parameters of quolls, and suggest future directions for research. Further research on captive and wild quoll populations will benefit future translocations, reintroductions and conservation through increased knowledge, improved maintenance and husbandry of captive colonies, and monitoring of wild populations.

Genetic diversity and population structure of the grey wolf (Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758) and evidence of wolf × dog hybridisation in the centre of European Russia

Throughout history the human–wolf interaction has not evolved in favour of the wolf, however, wolves have never been endangered in Russia. The wolf (Canis lupus lupus L., 1758) population in the central part of European Russia is relatively high, where environmental conditions, such as relatively undisturbed habitats, wide forested areas and abundance of natural prey, have always contributed to the long-term survival of the species. The human persecution of wolves has resulted in almost total extinction of the species in many European countries. In Russia, extermination campaigns have led to severe fluctuations in the number of wolves during the second half of the twentieth century, however, since the early 1990s there has been a tendency towards constant growth in the numbers. Previous studies provided preliminary data on population genetics of the wolf population in European Russia and have generally shown homogeneity of the population structure as well as detecting genetic bottleneck. However, the comprehensive study of genetic diversity and population structure during the period following the last severe decline is of great interest. Another important aspect in the study of wolf populations is the assessment of the magnitude of wolf × dog hybridisation, which is a phenomenon of conservation and social significance. We used 101 samples from the wolf population and 32 dogs to examine population structure, genetic diversity and events of interspecific hybridisation in the centre of European Russia, based on analysis of 11 autosomal microsatellites. In the studied region, wolves exhibit a high level of genetic diversity (HE = 0.79 ± 0.03, HO = 0.74 ± 0.01, NA = 10.00 ± 5.02) which is superior to that in most European populations. Analysis of temporal samples suggests a slight increase in heterozygosity over time, although in the first period following population decline, the level of genetic diversity is not depleted. We found a lack of spatial structure and a weak pattern of isolation by distance (b = − 0.007, P < 0.001), which are clear cases of intense gene flow and social organisation of the species. Our preliminary results suggest a relatively low rate of hybridisation in the studied region (around 3%), however, additional studies are needed to provide more reliable conclusions on this topic. This paper is the first attempt at both a detailed study of spatio-temporal population genetics and analysis of hybridisation in the wolves of Central Russia.

Andean and California condors possess dissimilar genetic composition but exhibit similar demographic histories.

While genetic diversity of threatened species is a major concern of conservation biologists, historic patterns of genetic variation are often unknown. A powerful approach to assess patterns and processes of genetic erosion is via ancient DNA techniques. Herein, we analyzed mtDNA from historical samples (1800s to present) of Andean Condors (Vultur gryphus) to investigate whether contemporary low genetic variability is the result of recent human expansion and persecution, and compared this genetic history to that of California condors (Gymnogyps californianus).We then explored historic demographies for both species via coalescent simulations. We found that Andean condors have lost at least 17% of their genetic variation in the early 20th century. Unlike California condors, however, low mtDNA diversity in the Andean condor was mostly ancient, before European arrival. However, we found that both condor species shared similar demographies in that population bottlenecks were recent and co‐occurred with the introduction of livestock to the Americas and the global collapse of marine mammals. Given the combined information on genetic and demographic processes, we suggest that the protection of key habitats should be targeted for conserving extant genetic diversity and facilitate the natural recolonization of lost territories, while nuclear genomic data should be used to inform translocation plans.

Landscapes of coexistence: generating predictive risk models to mitigate human-raptor conflicts in forest socio-ecosystems

Human persecution is a worldwide threat to raptors, contributing to the decline of many species. Perceived or real predation of domestic animals is the main driver of persecution and a barrier to the success of conservation initiatives. Predictive risk models are used to identify hazards in order to target effective prevention actions, and they have been successfully applied to conflicts with top predators. The Andean temperate region of Chile is a Global Biodiversity Hotspot where diurnal raptors co-inhabit with humans in rural areas. Here, complaints from farmers on raptor attacks on poultry have steadily increased; however, there is no empirical information about the conflict. This study aims to build a predictive social-ecological risk model to identify husbandry practices and landscape attributes associated with poultry predation by diurnal raptors in Chile. We applied 100 questionnaires to local farmers about their poultry husbandry practices and raptor predation patterns. We used data from questionnaires and landscape attributes to generate risk models of poultry predation. We show that farmers maintaining an enclosure to keep the chickens, a guard dog and a high proportion of forest in their properties can reduce the risk of raptor predation. These findings can be used to prevent raptor attacks on poultry by facilitating the implementation of these management measures in southern Chile. Our results indicate that predictive models can help in identifying effective coexistence measures for human-raptor conflicts benefiting human livelihoods as well as conservation of wild predators.

Mitogenomics of the endangered Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) reveals dramatic loss of diversity and supports historical gene-flow between Atlantic and eastern Mediterranean populations

AbstractThe Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus is one of the most threatened marine mammals, with only 600–700 individuals restricted to three populations off the coast of Western Sahara and Madeira (North Atlantic) and between Greece and Turkey (eastern Mediterranean). Its original range was from the Black Sea (eastern Mediterranean) to Gambia (western African coast), but was drastically reduced by commercial hunting and human persecution since the early stages of marine exploitation.We here analyse 42 mitogenomes of Mediterranean monk seals, from across their present and historical geographic ranges to assess the species population dynamics over time. Our data show a decrease in genetic diversity in the last 200 years. Extant individuals presented an almost four-fold reduction in genetic diversity when compared to historical specimens. We also detect, for the first time, a clear segregation between the two North Atlantic populations, Madeira and Cabo Blanco, regardless of their geographical proximity. Moreover, we show the presence of historical gene-flow between the two water basins, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, and the presence of at least one extinct maternal lineage in the Mediterranean. Our work demonstrates the advantages of using full mitogenomes in phylogeographic and conservation genomic studies of threatened species.

Distribution, abundance, and on-land threats to Cabo Verde seabirds

SummaryPelagic seabird populations have declined strongly worldwide. In the North Atlantic there was a huge reduction in seabird populations following the European colonization of the Azores, Madeira and Canary archipelagos but information on seabird status and distribution for the subtropical region of Cabo Verde is scarce, unavailable or dispersed in grey literature. We compiled and compared the historical and current distribution of all seabird species breeding in the Cabo Verde archipelago, updated their relative abundance, investigated their inland habitat preferences, and reviewed their threats. Currently, the breeding seabird community in Cabo Verde is composed of Bulwer’s Petrel Bulweria bulwerii, White-faced Storm-petrel Pelagodroma marina aedesorum, Cape Verde Shearwater Calonectris edwardsii, Cape Verde Storm-petrel Hydrobates jabejabe, Cape Verde Petrel Pterodroma feae, Boyd's Shearwater Puffinus lherminieri boydi, Brown Booby Sula leucogaster, and Red-billed Tropicbird Phaethon aethereus. One breeding species is currently extinct, the Magnificent Frigatebird Fregata magnificens. The relative abundance of Cape Verde Shearwater, Boyd’s Shearwater, Cape Verde Petrel, and Cape Verde Storm-petrel was determined from counts of their nocturnal calls in Santo Antão, São Vicente, Santa Luzia, Branco, Raso and São Nicolau. Cape Verde Petrel occurred only on mountainous islands (Santo Antão, São Nicolau, Santiago, and Fogo) from mid-to high elevations. Larger species such as the Cape Verde Shearwater and Boyd’s Shearwater exhibited a wider distribution in the archipelago, occurring close to the coastline but at lower densities on populated islands. Small procellariforms such as the Cape Verde Storm-petrel occurred at high densities only on rat-free islets and in steep areas of main islands where introduced cats and rats are unlikely to occur. The main threats to seabird populations in Cabo Verde range from predation by introduced predators, habitat alteration or destruction, and some residual human persecution.

Survey to identify factors affecting breeding of Wolverines Gulo gulo within the EEP

Conservation biologists have long faced the challenging task of large‐carnivore conservation. The hunting habits and specific ecology of these species make their conservation difficult and Wolverines Gulo gulo are no exception. Wolverines are close to extinction as a result of human persecution and habitat loss. The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) introduced the European Endangered Species Programme (EEP) for the Wolverine in 1994 but only irregular breeding has been achieved. The aim of this study was to identify factors that could be connected to breeding success in Wolverines in human care with a particular focus on the characteristics of enclosures, species biology, characteristics of the institutions and the influences of human–animal interactions. Based on these factors, we produced and distributed an online survey to almost all holders of Wolverines included in the EEP. Overall, no main factor or group of factors investigated in this study seemed to be the clear defining feature that would explain the differences in breeding success between institutions participating in the Wolverine EEP. However, a negative effect of small enclosures on breeding success was indicated by the results. Furthermore, zoos with non‐successful breeding tended to separate keepers and Wolverines during routine enclosure maintenance compared to zoos that reported successful breeding. Both these factors are interesting and need further investigation.