Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Life Cycle Research Articles

Applications of CRISPR-Cas9 Technology to Treat CCR5 Tropic HIV-1

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is most notable for its role in directly infecting and killing CD4 T cells in the immune system, which can lead to the acquisition of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Currently, there are no cures for HIV-1, leaving 37 million people with HIV-1 infections and no definitive treatment. Researchers are working towards developing long-term treatments for HIV-1 using CRISPR-Cas9. These therapies include genetically engineering antiviral resistance into vulnerable cell types and cutting out viral genomes from infected cells. This article will explain the HIV-1 life cycle in detail, give an overview of CRISPR-Cas9 technology, and then go into detail about the potential applications of CRISPR-Cas9 for the treatment of CCR5 Tropic HIV-1.

Multifactorial role of HIV-Vpr in cell apoptosis revealed by a naturally truncated 54aa variant.

Multifactorial role of HIV-Vpr in cell apoptosis revealed by a naturally truncated 54aa variant.

Structure, Function, and Interactions of the HIV-1 Capsid Protein.

The capsid (CA) protein of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is an essential structural component of a virion and facilitates many crucial life cycle steps through interactions with host cell factors. Capsid shields the reverse transcription complex from restriction factors while it enables trafficking to the nucleus by hijacking various adaptor proteins, such as FEZ1 and BICD2. In addition, the capsid facilitates the import and localization of the viral complex in the nucleus through interaction with NUP153, NUP358, TNPO3, and CPSF-6. In the later stages of the HIV-1 life cycle, CA plays an essential role in the maturation step as a constituent of the Gag polyprotein. In the final phase of maturation, Gag is cleaved, and CA is released, allowing for the assembly of CA into a fullerene cone, known as the capsid core. The fullerene cone consists of ~250 CA hexamers and 12 CA pentamers and encloses the viral genome and other essential viral proteins for the next round of infection. As research continues to elucidate the role of CA in the HIV-1 life cycle and the importance of the capsid protein becomes more apparent, CA displays potential as a therapeutic target for the development of HIV-1 inhibitors.

Going beyond Integration: The Emerging Role of HIV-1 Integrase in Virion Morphogenesis.

The HIV-1 integrase enzyme (IN) plays a critical role in the viral life cycle by integrating the reverse-transcribed viral DNA into the host chromosome. This function of IN has been well studied, and the knowledge gained has informed the design of small molecule inhibitors that now form key components of antiretroviral therapy regimens. Recent discoveries unveiled that IN has an under-studied yet equally vital second function in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication. This involves IN binding to the viral RNA genome in virions, which is necessary for proper virion maturation and morphogenesis. Inhibition of IN binding to the viral RNA genome results in mislocalization of the viral genome inside the virus particle, and its premature exposure and degradation in target cells. The roles of IN in integration and virion morphogenesis share a number of common elements, including interaction with viral nucleic acids and assembly of higher-order IN multimers. Herein we describe these two functions of IN within the context of the HIV-1 life cycle, how IN binding to the viral genome is coordinated by the major structural protein, Gag, and discuss the value of targeting the second role of IN in virion morphogenesis.

Modeling of the HIV-1 Life Cycle in Productively Infected Cells to Predict Novel Therapeutic Targets.

There are many studies that model the within-host population dynamics of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 (HIV-1) infection. However, the within-infected-cell replication of HIV-1 remains to be not comprehensively addressed. There exist rather few quantitative models describing the regulation of the HIV-1 life cycle at the intracellular level. In treatment of HIV-1 infection, there remain issues related to side-effects and drug-resistance that require further search “...for new and better drugs, ideally targeting multiple independent steps in the HIV-1 replication cycle” (as highlighted recently by Tedbury & Freed, The Future of HIV-1 Therapeutics, 2015). High-resolution mathematical models of HIV-1 growth in infected cells provide an additional analytical tool in identifying novel drug targets. We formulate a high-dimensional model describing the biochemical reactions underlying the replication of HIV-1 in target cells. The model considers a nonlinear regulation of the transcription of HIV-1 mediated by Tat and the Rev-dependent transport of fully spliced and singly spliced transcripts from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. The model is calibrated using available information on the kinetics of various stages of HIV-1 replication. The sensitivity analysis of the model is performed to rank the biochemical processes of HIV-1 replication with respect to their impact on the net production of virions by one actively infected cell. The ranking of the sensitivity factors provides a quantitative basis for identifying novel targets for antiviral therapy. Our analysis suggests that HIV-1 assembly depending on Gag and Tat-Rev regulation of transcription and mRNA distribution present two most critical stages in HIV-1 replication that can be targeted to effectively control virus production. These processes are not covered by current antiretroviral treatments.

The Discovery and Development of Oxalamide and Pyrrole Small Molecule Inhibitors of gp120 and HIV Entry - A Review.

Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) is the causative agent responsible for the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) pandemic. More than 60 million infections and 25 million deaths have occurred since AIDS was first identified in the early 1980s. Advances in available therapeutics, in particular combination antiretroviral therapy, have significantly improved the treatment of HIV infection and have facilitated the shift from high mortality and morbidity to that of a manageable chronic disease. Unfortunately, none of the currently available drugs are curative of HIV. To deal with the rapid emergence of drug resistance, off-target effects, and the overall difficulty of eradicating the virus, an urgent need exists to develop new drugs, especially against targets critically important for the HIV-1 life cycle. Viral entry, which involves the interaction of the surface envelope glycoprotein, gp120, with the cellular receptor, CD4, is the first step of HIV-1 infection. Gp120 has been validated as an attractive target for anti-HIV-1 drug design or novel HIV detection tools. Several small molecule gp120 antagonists are currently under investigation as potential entry inhibitors. Pyrrole, piperazine, triazole, pyrazolinone, oxalamide, and piperidine derivatives, among others, have been investigated as gp120 antagonist candidates. Herein, we discuss the current state of research with respect to the design, synthesis and biological evaluation of oxalamide derivatives and five-membered heterocycles, namely, the pyrrole-containing small molecule as inhibitors of gp120 and HIV entry.

HIV-1 requires Staufen1 to dissociate stress granules and to produce infectious viral particles.

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) genomic RNA (vRNA) has two major fates during viral replication: to serve as the template for the major structural and enzymatic proteins, or to be encapsidated and packaged into assembling virions to serve as the genomic vRNA in budding viruses. The dynamic balance between vRNA translation and encapsidation is mediated by numerous host proteins, including Staufen1. During HIV-1 infection, HIV-1 recruits Staufen1 to assemble a distinct ribonucleoprotein complex promoting vRNA encapsidation and viral assembly. Staufen1 also rescues vRNA translation and gene expression during conditions of cellular stress. In this work, we utilized novel Staufen1−/− gene-edited cells to further characterize the contribution of Staufen1 in HIV-1 replication. We observed a marked deficiency in the ability of HIV-1 to dissociate stress granules (SGs) in Staufen1-deficient cells and remarkably, the vRNA repositioned to SGs. These phenotypes were rescued by Staufen1 expression in trans or in cis, but not by a dsRBD-binding mutant, Staufen1F135A. The mistrafficking of the vRNA in these Staufen1−/− cells was also accompanied by a dramatic decrease in viral production and infectivity. This work provides novel insight into the mechanisms by which HIV-1 uses Staufen1 to ensure optimal vRNA translation and trafficking, supporting an integral role for Staufen1 in the HIV-1 life cycle, positioning it as an attractive target for next-generation antiretroviral agents.

Therapy of HIV Infection: Current Approaches and Prospects

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is the causative agent of one of the most dangerous human diseases - the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Over the past 30 years since the discovery of HIV-1, a number of antiviral drugs have been developed to suppress various stages of the HIV-1 life cycle. This approach has enables the suppression of virus replication in the body, which significantly prolongs the life of HIV patients. The main downside of the method is the development of viral resistance to many anti-HIV drugs, which requires the creation of new drugs effective against drug-resistant viral forms. Currently, several fundamentally new approaches to HIV-1 treatment are under development, including the use of neutralizing antibodies, genome editing, and blocking an integrated latent provirus. This review describes a traditional approach involving HIV-1 inhibitors as well as the prospects of other treatment options.

Ebselen, a Small-Molecule Capsid Inhibitor of HIV-1 Replication.

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) capsid plays crucial roles in HIV-1 replication and thus represents an excellent drug target. We developed a high-throughput screening method based on a time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer (HTS-TR-FRET) assay, using the C-terminal domain (CTD) of HIV-1 capsid to identify inhibitors of capsid dimerization. This assay was used to screen a library of pharmacologically active compounds, composed of 1,280in vivo-active drugs, and identified ebselen [2-phenyl-1,2-benzisoselenazol-3(2H)-one], an organoselenium compound, as an inhibitor of HIV-1 capsid CTD dimerization. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic analysis confirmed the direct interaction of ebselen with the HIV-1 capsid CTD and dimer dissociation when ebselen is in 2-fold molar excess. Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry revealed that ebselen covalently binds the HIV-1 capsid CTD, likely via a selenylsulfide linkage with Cys198 and Cys218. This compound presents anti-HIV activity in single and multiple rounds of infection in permissive cell lines as well as in primary peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Ebselen inhibits early viral postentry events of the HIV-1 life cycle by impairing the incoming capsid uncoating process. This compound also blocks infection of other retroviruses, such as Moloney murine leukemia virus and simian immunodeficiency virus, but displays no inhibitory activity against hepatitis C and influenza viruses. This study reports the use of TR-FRET screening to successfully identify a novel capsid inhibitor, ebselen, validating HIV-1 capsid as a promising target for drug development.

Role of DNA-dependent protein kinase in the HIV-1 replication cycle

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is among the best-studied viruses, but some aspects of HIV-1 biology remain obscure. The role of cell proteins in virus replication raises especially many questions. One of the proteins is DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), which performs crucially important functions in the human body. DNA-PK is known to influence at least two stages in the HIV-1 life cycle, the integration of viral genome in cell DNA and transcription of the integrated provirus. Many details regarding this influence remain unresolved. The review summarizes the known data on the DNA-PK role in the HIV-1 life cycle and its influence on the replication of other members of the family Retroviridae. In the beginning of this review there is a short explanation of the DNA-PK cellular functions that are especially important for understanding its role in the HIV-1 replication.

Targeting TNF-Alpha in HIV-1 Infection.

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has dramatically extended the lifespan and quality of life of individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). HAART comprises of a cocktail of various pharmacological inhibitors which interfere with almost every stages of HIV-1 life cycle. However, constant application of drugs often results in the evolution of hostpathogen relationship resulting in the emergence of drug resistant viral strains. Drug resistant HIV-1 is a potent threat for the humankind. Therefore, there is a constant need to search for novel therapeutic molecules. HIV-1 infection results in the depletion of CD4+/CD8+T cells and alters the cytokine network in the infected individuals. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), a proinflammatory cytokine, plays a critical role in HIV-1 pathogenesis. HIV-1 utilizes the TNF-alpha signaling pathway for expanding its reservoir. Several HIV-1 proteins mimic and regulate the TNF-alpha signaling pathway. TNF-alpha inhibitors have been used in several inflammatory pathologies with success to some extent. In the present mini review we will discuss the role of TNF-alpha in HIV-1 pathogenesis. Furthermore we will evaluate the TNF-alpha inhibitors as an additional therapeutic option for HIV-1 infection.

Design, synthesis and activity evaluation of novel peptide fusion inhibitors targeting HIV-1 gp41

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), the pathogen of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), causes about 2million people to death every year. Fusion inhibitors targeted the envelope protein (gp41) represent a novel and alternative approach for anti-AIDS therapy, which terminates the HIV-1 life cycle at an early stage. Using CP621-652 as a template, a series of peptides were designed, synthesized and evaluated in vitro assays. An interesting phenomenon was found that the substitution of hydrophobic residues at solvent accessible sites could increase the anti-HIV activity when the C-terminal sequence was extended with an enough numbers of amino acids. After the active peptides was synthesized and evaluated, peptide 8 showed the best anti-HIV-1 IIIB whole cell activity (MAGI IC50=53.02nM). Further study indicated that peptide 8 bound with the gp41 NHR helix, and then blocked the conformation of 6-helix, thus inhibited virus–cell membrane fusion. The results would be helpful for the design of peptide fusion inhibitors against HIV-1 infection.

Interaction between Reverse Transcriptase and Integrase Is Required for Reverse Transcription during HIV-1 Replication.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication requires reverse transcription of its RNA genome into a double-stranded cDNA copy, which is then integrated into the host cell chromosome. The essential steps of reverse transcription and integration are catalyzed by the viral enzymes reverse transcriptase (RT) and integrase (IN), respectively. In vitro, HIV-1 RT can bind with IN, and the C-terminal domain (CTD) of IN is necessary and sufficient for this binding. To better define the RT-IN interaction, we performed nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy experiments to map a binding surface on the IN CTD in the presence of RT prebound to a duplex DNA construct that mimics the primer-binding site in the HIV-1 genome. To determine the biological significance of the RT-IN interaction during viral replication, we used the NMR chemical shift mapping information as a guide to introduce single amino acid substitutions of nine different residues on the putative RT-binding surface in the IN CTD. We found that six viral clones bearing such IN substitutions (R231E, W243E, G247E, A248E, V250E, and I251E) were noninfectious. Further analyses of the replication-defective IN mutants indicated that the block in replication took place specifically during early reverse transcription. The recombinant INs purified from these mutants, though retaining enzymatic activities, had diminished ability to bind RT in a cosedimentation assay. The results indicate that the RT-IN interaction is functionally relevant during the reverse transcription step of the HIV-1 life cycle. To establish a productive infection, human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) needs to reverse transcribe its RNA genome to create a double-stranded DNA copy and then integrate this viral DNA genome into the chromosome of the host cell. These two essential steps are catalyzed by the HIV-1 enzymes reverse transcriptase (RT) and integrase (IN), respectively. We have shown previously that IN physically interacts with RT, but the importance of this interaction during HIV-1 replication has not been fully characterized. In this study, we have established the biological significance of the HIV-1 RT-IN interaction during the viral life cycle by demonstrating that altering the RT-binding surface on IN disrupts both reverse transcription and viral replication. These findings contribute to our understanding of the RT-IN binding mechanism, as well as indicate that the RT-IN interaction can be exploited as a new antiviral drug target.

RNA helicase MOV10 functions as a co-factor of HIV-1 Rev to facilitate Rev/RRE-dependent nuclear export of viral mRNAs

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) exploits multiple host factors during its replication. The REV/RRE-dependent nuclear export of unspliced/partially spliced viral transcripts needs the assistance of host proteins. Recent studies have shown that MOV10 overexpression inhibited HIV-1 replication at various steps. However, the endogenous MOV10 was required in certain step(s) of HIV-1 replication. In this report, we found that MOV10 potently enhances the nuclear export of viral mRNAs and subsequently increases the expression of Gag protein and other late products through affecting the Rev/RRE axis. The co-immunoprecipitation analysis indicated that MOV10 interacts with Rev in an RNA-independent manner. The DEAG-box of MOV10 was required for the enhancement of Rev/RRE-dependent nuclear export and the DEAG-box mutant showed a dominant-negative activity. Our data propose that HIV-1 utilizes the anti-viral factor MOV10 to function as a co-factor of Rev and demonstrate the complicated effects of MOV10 on HIV-1 life cycle.

Nuclear architecture dictates HIV-1 integration site selection.

Long-standing evidence indicates that human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) preferentially integrates into a subset of transcriptionally active genes of the host cell genome. However, the reason why the virus selects only certain genes among all transcriptionally active regions in a target cell remains largely unknown. Here we show that HIV-1 integration occurs in the outer shell of the nucleus in close correspondence with the nuclear pore. This region contains a series of cellular genes, which are preferentially targeted by the virus, and characterized by the presence of active transcription chromatin marks before viral infection. In contrast, the virus strongly disfavours the heterochromatic regions in the nuclear lamin-associated domains and other transcriptionally active regions located centrally in the nucleus. Functional viral integrase and the presence of the cellular Nup153 and LEDGF/p75 integration cofactors are indispensable for the peripheral integration of the virus. Once integrated at the nuclear pore, the HIV-1 DNA makes contact with various nucleoporins; this association takes part in the transcriptional regulation of the viral genome. These results indicate that nuclear topography is an essential determinant of the HIV-1 life cycle.

Mathematical model of the Tat-Rev regulation of HIV-1 replication in an activated cell predicts the existence of oscillatory dynamics in the synthesis of viral components.

BackgroundThe life cycle of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) makes possible the realization of regulatory strategies that can lead to complex dynamical behavior of the system. We analyze the strategy which is based on two feedback mechanisms, one mediating a positive regulation of the virus replication by Tat protein via the antitermination of the genomic RNAs transcription on TAR (transactivation responsive) element of the proviral DNA and the second mechanism providing a negative regulation of the splicing of the full-length (9 kb) RNAs and incompletely spliced (4 kb) RNAs via their transport from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. Although the existence of these two regulatory feedback loops has been considered in other mathematical models, none of them examined the conditions for the emergence of complex oscillatory patterns in the intracellular dynamics of viral components.ResultsWe developed a mechanistic mathematical model for the Tat-Rev mediated regulation of HIV-1 replication, which considers the activation of proviral DNA transcription, the Tat-specific antitermination of transcription on TAR-element, resulting in the synthesis of the full-length 9 kb RNA, the splicing of the 9 kb RNA down to the 4 kb RNA and the 4 kb RNA to 2 kb RNA, the transport of 2 kb mRNAs from the nucleus to the cytoplasm by the intracellular mechanisms, the multiple binding of the Rev protein to RRE (Rev Response Element) sites on 9 kb and 4 kb RNA resulting in their export to the cytoplasm and the synthesis of Tat and Rev proteins in the cytoplasm followed by their transport into the nucleus. The degradation of all viral proteins and RNAs both in the cytoplasm and the nucleus is described. The model parameters values were derived from the published literature data. The model was used to examine the dynamics of the synthesis of the viral proteins Tat and Rev, the mRNAs under the intracellular conditions specific for activated HIV-1 infected macrophages. In addition, we analyzed alternative hypotheses for the re-cycling of the Rev proteins both in the cytoplasm and the nuclear pore complex.ConclusionsThe quantitative mathematical model of the Tat-Rev regulation of HIV-1 replication predicts the existence of oscillatory dynamics which depends on the efficacy of the Tat and TAR interaction as well as on the Rev-mediated transport processes. The biological relevance of the oscillatory regimes for the HIV-1 life cycle is discussed.

The nature of the N-terminal amino acid residue of HIV-1 RNase H is critical for the stability of reverse transcriptase in viral particles.

Reverse transcriptase (RT) of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is synthesized and packaged into the virion as a part of the GagPol polyprotein. Mature RT is released by the action of viral protease. However, unlike other viral proteins, RT is subject to an internal cleavage event leading to the formation of two subunits in the virion: a p66 subunit and a p51 subunit that lacks the RNase H domain. We have previously identified RNase H to be an HIV-1 protein that has the potential to be a substrate for the N-end rule pathway, which is an ubiquitin-dependent proteolytic system in which the identity of the N-terminal amino acid determines the half-life of a protein. Here we examined the importance of the N-terminal amino acid residue of RNase H in the early life cycle of HIV-1. We show that changing this residue to an amino acid structurally different from the conserved residue leads to the degradation of RT and, in some cases, integrase in the virus particle and this abolishes infectivity. Using intravirion complementation and in vitro protease cleavage assays, we show that degradation of RT in RNase H N-terminal mutants occurs in the absence of active viral protease in the virion. Our results also indicate the importance of the RNase H N-terminal residue in the dimerization of RT subunits. HIV-1 proteins are initially made as part of a polyprotein that is cleaved by the viral protease into the proteins that form the virus particle. We were interested in one particular protein, RNase H, that is cleaved from reverse transcriptase. In particular, we found that the first amino acid of RNase H never varied in over 1,850 isolates of HIV-1 that we compared. When we changed the first amino acid, we found that the reverse transcriptase in the virus was degraded. While other studies have implied that the viral protease can degrade mutant RT proteins, we show here that this may not be the case for our mutants. Our results suggest that the presence of active viral protease is not required for the degradation of RT in RNase H N-terminal mutants, suggesting a role for a cellular protease in this process.

Suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 counteracts rhesus macaque TRIM5α-induced inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type-1 production.

Old world monkey TRIM5α is a host factor that restricts human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) infection. Previously, we reported that rhesus macaque TRIM5α (RhTRIM5α) restricts HIV-1 production by inducing degradation of precursor Gag. Since suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1) is known to enhance HIV-1 production by rescuing Gag from lysosomal degradation, we examined if SOCS1 is involved in RhTRIM5α-mediated late restriction. Over-expression of SOCS1 restored HIV-1 production in the presence of RhTRIM5α to a level comparable to that in the absence of RhTRIM5α in terms of titer and viral protein expression. Co-immunoprecipitation studies revealed that SOCS1 physically interacted with RhTRIM5α. Over-expression of SOCS1 affected RhTRIM5α expression in a dose-dependent manner, which was not reversed by proteasome inhibitors. In addition, SOCS1 and RhTRIM5α were detected in virus-like particles. These results suggest that SOCS1 alleviates RhTRIM5α-mediated regulation in the late phase of HIV-1 life cycle probably due to the destabilization of RhTRIM5α.

UPF1 is crucial for the infectivity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 progeny virions.

The SF1 helicase MOV10 is an antiviral factor that is incorporated into human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) virions. We now report that HIV-1 virions also incorporate UPF1, which belongs to the same SF1 helicase subfamily as MOV10 and functions in the nonsense-mediated decay (NMD) pathway. Unlike ectopic MOV10, the overexpression of UPF1 does not impair the infectivity of HIV-1 progeny virions. However, UPF1 becomes a potent inhibitor of HIV-1 progeny virion infectivity when residues required for its helicase activity are mutated. In contrast, equivalent mutations abolish the antiviral activity of MOV10. Importantly, cells depleted of endogenous UPF1, but not of another NMD core component, produce HIV-1 virions of substantially lower specific infectivity. The defect is at the level of reverse transcription, the same stage of the HIV-1 life cycle inhibited by ectopic MOV10. Thus, whereas ectopic MOV10 restricts HIV-1 replication, the related UPF1 helicase functions as a cofactor at an early postentry step.

Large-Scale Functional Purification of Recombinant HIV-1 Capsid

During human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) virion maturation, capsid proteins undergo a major rearrangement to form a conical core that protects the viral nucleoprotein complexes. Mutations in the capsid sequence that alter the stability of the capsid core are deleterious to viral infectivity and replication. Recently, capsid assembly has become an attractive target for the development of a new generation of anti-retroviral agents. Drug screening efforts and subsequent structural and mechanistic studies require gram quantities of active, homogeneous and pure protein. Conventional means of laboratory purification of Escherichia coli expressed recombinant capsid protein rely on column chromatography steps that are not amenable to large-scale production. Here we present a function-based purification of wild-type and quadruple mutant capsid proteins, which relies on the inherent propensity of capsid protein to polymerize and depolymerize. This method does not require the packing of sizable chromatography columns and can generate double-digit gram quantities of functionally and biochemically well-behaved proteins with greater than 98% purity. We have used the purified capsid protein to characterize two known assembly inhibitors in our in-house developed polymerization assay and to measure their binding affinities. Our capsid purification procedure provides a robust method for purifying large quantities of a key protein in the HIV-1 life cycle, facilitating identification of the next generation anti-HIV agents.