Human Activity In Outer Space Research Articles

PROTECTION OF THE SPACE ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AS A PARADIGM FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPACE LEGISLATION

Managing human activity in outer space requires a mixture of tools, including technology, economics, and law. Though technology and economics are of prime importance, the space sector needs a clear, coherent, and adequately granular regulatory environment that ensures its sustainable development and also serves sustainability on Earth. No doubt the law can be a tool for introducing sustainability into the space sector’s daily life. To serve as such, law should be almost as dynamic and agile as the space activity and space environment. The space law should not only be descriptive, but it should also address new concepts such as in-orbit servicing, asteroid mining, etc. By doing so, it should also embrace the technical aspects of space activities even if they are not mandatory by international law. The lawmakers, especially national legislators, must also not be afraid to tackle new areas. The primary duty of national governments is to enhance safety and minimize risk in all, traditional and emerging space ventures, both in material and financial contexts that do not only directly affect their citizens and their assets, but also the environment, which obviously serve the entire society in an inclusive way and on a long-term basis. The purpose of this paper is to provide a voice in the discussion on the concept of sustainable development of space activities and suitability of the existing space regulatory framework. In order to draw some conclusions, it seems necessary to analyse the notion of sustainability against the existing legal framework, so as to state whether it is still up to date in this respect and whether it may contribute to materializing the sustainable development of the space sector. In particular, it is interesting to consider whether the liability regime, including the notion of damage and prerequisites of claims for compensation as adopted in the Liability Convention may still serve its purpose and answer the needs of the shift in the priorities of space exploration. Finally, I intend to consider the possibility of drawing on principles from other branches of law, including in particular, environmental law and insurance law and practice, in order to build legal mechanisms to implement the demands of sustainable development of space. Thus, among other issues, the topic of space environmentalism as well as the coherence of space and earth sustainability instruments will be analysed.

Space resource activities and the evolution of international space law

We are experiencing a period of renewed interest in human activities in outer space and, in particular, the return of humans to the Moon. Multiple lunar missions, including the NASA led Artemis project and the China and Russia International Lunar Research Station propose a sustained human presence on the Moon which will require in-situ resource extraction and usage. This article explores the likely impact of statements and actions by states on the future evolution of international space law in relation to space resource activities, highlighting the urgent need for greater clarity in the law regarding space resource activities. It will examine the relevant international law, domestic legislation, multilateral agreements, and recent international discussions concerning space resource activities. It concludes that the current international space law regime lacks clear laws regarding space resource activities and emphasises the importance of space law evolving in order to progress with industry and exploration.

Star Wars: Anti-Satellite Weapons and Orbital Debris

ABSTRACT The militarization and weaponization of outer space are increasing continuously with the development of new and more advanced space weapon systems by a growing number of nations. This is a direct consequence of the high and growing strategic value of outer space for defense, security, and warfare. This paper reviews trends in space weapon systems and analyzes the implications of anti-satellite military weapons for human activities in outer space. A direct consequence of the completion of anti-satellite military tests is that the amount of orbital debris has increased significantly. We use a simple physical – economic model to illustrate how anti-satellite military tests, particularly those using direct-ascent weapons, dramatically increase the probability that the Kessler syndrome will occur. Whereas the long-run impact of low altitude anti-satellite tests is limited because of atmospheric drag, at high altitude direct-ascent anti-satellite tests are persistently harmful for human activities in space. The paper also provides a simulation of the long-run effects of a war in space.

A Population Dynamics Approach to the Distribution of Space Debris in Low Earth Orbit

The presence of the debris in the Earth’s orbit poses a significant risk to human activity in outer space. This debris population continues to grow due to ground launches, the loss of external parts from space ships, and uncontrollable collisions between objects. A computationally feasible continuum model for the growth of the debris population and its spatial distribution is therefore critical. Here we propose a diffusion-collision model for the evolution of the debris density in the low-Earth orbit and its dependence on the ground-launch policy. We parametrize this model and test it against data from publicly available object catalogs to examine timescales for the uncontrolled growth. Finally, we consider sensible launch policies and cleanup strategies and how they reduce the future risk of collisions with active satellites or space ships.

Space Diplomacy and the Artemis Accords

Summary The growth of human activity in outer space is attracting more International Relations (IR) scholar’s attention, enabling an understanding of the involvement of specific groups of actors and the dynamics of political negotiations that lead to concluding agreements on using outer space for peaceful purposes. This article provides analysis based on the triangulation of qualitative data gathered via document analysis and in-depth semi-structured expert interviews to gain insight into the involvement of the actors responsible for the negotiations that led to the Artemis Accords and their diplomatic communication style. The results identified different uses of public and private diplomatic communication for advancing norms of behaviour and transparency. Negotiators used public diplomatic communication in order to influence foreign governments on the need for norms of behaviour and transparency to further peaceful space exploration beyond low Earth orbit. Private diplomatic communication facilitated the inclusion of commercial partners.

The Legal Path to Mars

Human activities in outer space have been increasing since the 1950s. Currently, there are several futuristic projects related to human settlements on the Moon or Mars. This analysis focuses on whether current international legal instruments are appropriate to regulate such new challenges, which efforts are needed in a de iure condendo perspective, what role the United Nations will play in such a context.

Human Rights and Space: Reflections on the Implications of Human Activity in Outer Space on Human Rights Law

What are the implications of human activity in outer space for international human rights law? In this article, we reflect on these questions with a view to advancing dialogue on the intersection between space law and human rights. We do so by considering the impact of extra-terrestrial human activities such as access to space and remote-sensing activities, space debris, space mining, the weaponisation and militarization of space, and the assertion of criminal jurisdiction extra-terrestrially. Ultimately, we conclude that human activity in space has significant consequences for the advancement of human rights. While, in our view, existing legal frameworks on international human rights law apply extra-terrestrially, there is still scope for specialist frameworks guarding human rights law in the context of human activity in outer space. 
 "To confine our attention to terrestrial matters would be to limit the human spirit." 
 ~ Stephen Hawking, Astrophysicist 
 "Space is for everybody. It's not just for a few people in science or math, or for a select group of astronauts. That's our new frontier out there, and it's everybody's business to know about space." 
 ~ Christa McAuliffe, Teacher and Challenger Astronaut

ANALISIS INDEKS AKTIVITAS GEOMAGNET PADA SAAT BADAI GEOMAGNET 13 OKTOBER 2016

Badai geomagnet terjadi akibat aktivitas abnormal di matahari yang mempengaruhi intensitas angin matahari. Badai ini ditandai dengan perubahan nilai variasi harian medan magnet bumi yang besar, cepat dan tidak beraturan. Efek badai geomagnet di sekitar bumi dapat berdampak pada aktivitas manusia di luar angkasa dan di permukaan bumi. Salah satu kejadian badai geomagnet yang pernah tercatat adalah pada tanggal 13 Oktober 2016. Dalam penentuan tingkat gangguan geomagnet digunakan indeks geomagnet. Indeks geomagnet merupakan ukuran sederhana yang menggambarkan aktivitas magnetis yang berasal dari ionosfer dan magnetosfer bumi. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis indeks geomagnet ketika terjadi badai tanggal 13 Oktober 2016. Indeks geomagnet yang dianalisis antara lain indeks K, indeks A dan indeks Dst khususnya di wilayah Sumatera. Data yang digunakan adalah data variasi harian komponen H medan magnet bumi dari rekaman sensor magnetometer BMKG di Stasiun Gunungsitoli, Tuntungan, Sicincin, Liwa dan Tangerang. Berdasarkan hasil analisis dapat diidentifikasi jika badai geomagnet pada tanggal 13 Oktober 2016 tersebut termasuk kriteria badai geomagnet kuat jika ditinjau dari nilai Dst indeks yang menyentuh angka dibawah -100 nT.

Measurement of Norms of International Outer Space Law in Enforcing Criminal Jurisdiction

Following the beginning of human activities in outer space, such issues as governance, jurisdiction and other legal matters were investigated by jurists. It should be accepted that technological advancement cannot be made possible in the presence of legal gaps, and it should be acknowledged that law is easily changing and developing constantly. With increasing progression law of outer space is essential. humans having access to the outer space, it is extremely essential and important to develop international law governing the outer space and celestial Bodies.As the most resent branch of international law, therefore, International Space law provides new concepts related to criminal jurisdiction for this reason, present paper attempts to explain criminal jurisdiction within international law system while evaluating its position in the framework of international outer space law on interrelated issues such as command authority, authority of commanding the international space stations, and Command of the International Space Station and commanders in light of U.N outer space treaty

PROBLEMS OF OUTER SPACE SAFE EXPLORATION: PHILOSOPHICAL AND LEGAL APPROACH

The article analyzes the problem of the formation of the imperative of human activity’s explication in outer space. It is asserted that the existing international agreements and legal framework for the regulation of human activities in outer space requires thorough study and close attention from researchers. The main challenges, generated by outer space exploration, bring not only potential benefits but global threats and risks to the existence of human civilization. The enlisted problems in the outer space exploration have two levels of solutions in the legal aspect: improvement of the existing legal framework of international instruments and the design of regulation of human activity in the subsequent challenges of the interstellar world exploration. The need for legal regulation of all major manifestations of activity in outer space indicates the embryonic state of the relevant imperatives, which are closely linked to the challenges to the safety of mankind and its civilization progress. The content of the outer space exploration strategy is demonstrated from the point of non-classical paradigm of philosophy and epistemology, which significantly delegitimize modern ethical and axiological principles. The search of strategies of legal support of the civilization development in the context of space exploration is carried out according to following formulated trends: the demarcation of nationalized airspace and universal space, the problem of the militarization of the space expansion of mankind, the development of telecommunication technologies and the use of geostationary orbit, technological, medical and biological research — all these activities significantly change the direction of our daily routines and the overall security status of the earth civilization development.

Toward an Ecological and Cosmonautical Philosophy

Beginning as pockets of anaerobic bacteria subsisting on geothermal energy on the ocean floor, life expanded first throughout the ocean, then over the land, and eventually came to cover the entire Earth. In this paper, I argue that human activity in outer space should be understood in the context of this progression: life as an exponentially expanding force of negentropy currently contained within the atmosphere of the earth, and human technology as a radical transformation whereby life becomes capable of expanding over this limit. With reference to the philosophy of Krafft Ehricke, I argue that this position represents a synthesis between deep ecology and technological civilization: as with deep ecology, human beings are seen as having duties toward life; however, these duties consist not only in protecting the biosphere, but also in developing techno-biological living systems capable of reproducing in the ambient matter of the solar system

Beyond World Risk Society? A Critique of Ulrich Beck's World Risk Society Thesis as a Framework for Understanding Risk Associated with Human Activity in Outer Space

This paper examines the risks generated by human activity in outer space, exploring the possibility of extending Ulrich Beck's ‘world risk society’ thesis beyond the globe. Through the use of three case studies looking at (1) the use of nuclear power in space missions, (2) the proliferation of space debris, and (3) proposed space solutions to environmental problems, it argues for the usefulness of some of Beck's concepts whilst providing a critique of some of his central theoretical assumptions. In particular, the inadequacies of Beck's accounts of economic power and subjectivity are highlighted throughout the paper, and used to suggest that Beck's optimism about the emergence of a cosmopolitan public sphere is misplaced. The paper finishes by arguing that Beck's understanding of a ‘reinvention of politics’ based on the intrusion of risk into everyday life cannot cope with the kinds of risk discussed in the paper. It concludes that it is only through greater recognition of the depth of the economic and psychic structures at work that the politics of risk in outer space can be challenged.

Pro-space Activism and Narcissistic Phantasy

This paper uses psychoanalytic theory to understand the motivation of pro-space activists – people campaigning to increase human activity in outer space. It suggests that activists are motivated by fantasies of a spacefaring civilization, which manifest unconscious phantasies of omnipotence and fusion related to the experience of self in primary narcissism. The argument of the paper is that in order to understand this pursuit of a phantasized self, we must locate activists within the cultural conditions that encourage secondary narcissism. This is one example of how psychoanalytically informed social theory can account for the relationship between social structure and the motivation of political activists.