Hue Test Research Articles

Investigating the effects of simulated high altitude on colour discrimination

PurposeTo quantify changes in colour vision immediately after exposure to different altitudes of low-pressure hypoxia.MethodsThe study involved 35 healthy participants (ages 20–26). Colour vision was assessed using the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue...

Novel color vision assessment tool: AIM Color Detection and Discrimination.

Color vision assessment is essential in clinical practice, yet different tests exhibit distinct strengths and limitations. Here we apply a psychophysical paradigm, Angular Indication Measurement (AIM) for color detection and discrimination. AIM is designed to address some of the shortcomings of existing tests, such as prolonged testing time, limited accuracy and sensitivity, and the necessity for clinician oversight. AIM presents adaptively generated charts, each a N×M (here 4×4) grid of stimuli, and participants are instructed to indicate either the orientation of the gap in a cone-isolating Landolt C optotype or the orientation of the edge between two colors in an equiluminant color space. The contrasts or color differences of the stimuli are adaptively selected for each chart based on performance of prior AIM charts. In a group of 23 color-normal and 15 people with color vision deficiency (CVD), we validate AIM color against Hardy-Rand-Rittler (HRR), Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test (FM100), and anomaloscope color matching diagnosis and use machine learning techniques to classify the type and severity of CVD. The results show that AIM has classification accuracies comparable to that of the anomaloscope, and while HRR and FM100 are less accurate than AIM and an anomaloscope, HRR is very rapid. We conclude that AIM is a computer-based, self-administered, response-adaptive and rapid tool with high test-retest repeatability that has the potential to be suitable for both clinical and research applications.

Visuospatial dysfunction predicts dementia-first phenoconversion in isolated REM sleep behaviour disorder

ObjectiveWhile isolated rapid eye movement sleep behaviour disorder (iRBD) is known as a prodrome of α-synucleinopathies, the prediction for its future phenoconversion to parkinsonism-first or dementia-first subtype remains a challenge....

Impact of Prolonged Screening and COVID-19 Infection on Acquired Colour Vision Deficiencies Assessed by the Farnsworth–Munsell 100 Hue Test

Over the past decade, global screening time has increased, a trend intensified by the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to the integration of screens into daily life. Studies have documented the adverse effects of prolonged screening on ocular health and binocular vision, such as dry eye syndrome, blurry vision, headaches, myopia, and visual fatigue. However, it remains unclear if prolonged screening affects the development of colour vision defects. Objectives: This study aimed to determine the relationship between (a) prolonged screening and acquired colour vision deficiencies and (b) COVID-19 infection and acquired colour vision deficiencies. Methods: A population of 50 individuals with normal trichromatic vision, aged 20 to 30 years, with an average daily screening time of 516.7 min, was evaluated. Participants were initially screened using the Ishihara 32-plate Test to exclude those with congenital colour vision deficiencies. The Farnsworth–Munsell 100 Hue Test (FM100H) and Square Root Total Error Score (√TES) were used to evaluate acquired colour vision deficiencies under standardized conditions. The dataset underwent dual analysis: (1) detailed statistical scrutiny and (2) comparison of √TES values with historical data from 1982, 1991, 2001, and 2002. Results: The global group had a √TES (Mean ± SD) of 5.40 ± 1.58, the COVID-19 subgroup 5.46 ± 1.62, and the non-COVID-19 subgroup 5.32 ± 1.51. No significant differences were found between the √TES values from this population and those reported in previous studies. Statistical analysis showed no significant correlation between gender and COVID-19 infection with √TES values. Conclusions: Neither screening time nor COVID-19 infection appears to significantly impact the occurrence of permanently acquired colour vision deficiencies in individuals aged 20 to 30 years.

The Impact of the Fresh Pork Display Lamps on the Sensory Response of Consumers to Fresh Pork.

Two studies were conducted to investigate the impact of fresh pork display lamps on consumers' sensory responses to pork products. In the first experiment, 63 participants were asked to evaluate pork products with different degrees of freshness under four fresh pork display lights and two LED lights. In the other experiment, 30 subjects participated in the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test under the same lamps, with the aim of showing whether the fresh pork display lamps impaired color discrimination. The results showed that the light source had a significant effect on the color appearance evaluation of the pork products. The ratings for perceived freshness under the fresh pork display lamps were significantly higher than those of ordinary LED lamps, while the color discrimination performance of the subjects under those lamps was poor. It was demonstrated that improper component proportions of the light spectrum could influence observers' assessment of meat quality and weaken the observers' ability to distinguish the freshness level. Through this study, the authors would like to remind lamp users and manufacturers to not only be concerned about the improvement in the color appearance of pork, but also the need for consumers to be aware of the authentic freshness of the pork products.

Analyzing the effect of blue-blocking lenses on color vision tests using the chromaticity coordinate method

SignificanceBlue light with wavelengths of 380–445 nm can harm the retina, leading to the development of blue-blocking lenses (BBLs). Understanding whether BBLs affect color vision test outcomes and color discrimination ability is crucial for people in color-associated jobs. AimThis study aimed to evaluate the effect of BBLs on color vision tests and analyze color discrimination using mathematical models of color spaces. ApproachSix pseudoisochromatic (PIC) tests and two Farnsworth-Munsell (FM) tests were conducted to assess participants’ color vision. Friedman signed rank test was used to compare the outcomes of the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue Tests (FM 100-Hue Tests) between the BBLs and ordinary lenses groups. The CIE color difference formula and a spectral illuminometer were employed to evaluate the color differences with and without BBLs. ResultsAll subjects showed normal outcomes in all PIC tests and Farnsworth-Munsell Dichotomous D-15 Tests (FM D-15 Tests). There were no significant differences between ordinary lenses group and BBLs groups in FM 100-Hue Tests. In the color space, the effect of BBLs on each color light was equivalent to a translation on the CIE 1931 chromaticity diagram with minor distortion. Since BBLs do not disrupt the continuity of the chromaticity diagram, or cause different colors to appear the same, they do not lead to color confusion. However, colors with short wavelengths exhibited more changes in color difference when wearing BBLs. ConclusionsBBLs do not impair the wearer's ability to discriminate colors or perform color vision tests accurately. However, BBLs can cause color differences especially in the recognition of blue hues.

Evaluation of the Efficacy of Enchroma Filters for Correcting Color Vision Impairment

Objective: This study examined the effectiveness of Enchroma Cx-14 filters on individuals with Red-Green color vision deficiency (CVD). Methods: ColorDx and the Farnsworth-Munsell (FM) 100-Hue test were used to assess subjective reactions to Enchroma. The ColorDx and FM, 100 Hue test error scores were computed and contrasted using Placebo (untinted glasses) and Enchroma CX-14, red, and green filters. Results: The findings demonstrated that while enchroma filters improved the mistake score in only two patients, they had no discernible impact on any CVD subject's performance. In one protan participant and all deutan individuals, colour discrimination was greatly enhanced by the red filter. Green filters and Enchroma did not raise mean error scores. Conclusion: Enchroma filters had limited effectiveness in improving color perception for individuals with Red-Green CVD.

A Preliminary Survey of Color Discrimination Among Indonesia Female Subjects Using Farnsworth-Munsell Hue Color Test

This study aimed to conduct a preliminary survey of the color discrimination test among Indonesian samples. The study involved 26 participants of university students and office workers. To test the ability of color discrimination, the Farnsworth-Munsell (FM) 100 Hue Color Vision Test was used. Farnsworth-Munsell test scoring software was also used to obtain the total score of each participant. Using the FM 100-hue test, the participants were classified into superior, average and low color discrimination ability. The results showed that that 19.2% female participants were classified as superior for color discrimination ability. Majority of participants were classified as average. Meanwhile for low classification, only 3.9% were classified as low color discrimination ability. Currently, many companies and industries have great need for workers with good characterized and accurate color vision. However, the study of color discrimination is still limited and unknown in Indonesia. Through this study, hopefully attention for a broader study with a larger scale could be obtained.

Dyschromatopsia and contrast sensitivity changes in COVID-19 patients.

To evaluate the alterations in the psycho-physical tests, contrast sensitivity (CS) and hue discrimination (total estimation score, TES) in COVID-19 patients. A prospective case-control study was undertaken in 2021-22 to look at CS and TES among COVID-19 patients and RT-PCR negative normal subjects by a mobile app "smart optometry" and X-Rite's free online version of Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test. Strict visual acuity (minimum of 6/9 equivalent on Snellen) and other clinical parameters were used as exclusion criteria to filter potentially confounding pre-receptoral co-morbid conditions. The effect of mismatch in recruiting age and sex matched controls during the pandemic were analyzed by multivariate linear regression. One-way ANOVA ruled out any influence of gender on CS and TES; however, there was significant difference in the TES on Mann Whitney U test (TES- 2.95 +/- 3.8 for cases; 0.30 +/- 1.1 for controls; p <0.001) and it persisted after accounting for age. Six controls with breakthrough infections had a significant deterioration in TES (Mean scores -3.0; 95% CI = -5.89 to -0.11; p = 0.04) on paired t test. Qualitative analysis showed that S-cone mediated deficiencies outnumber those affecting M-L cone mediated deficiencies. Among 53 subjects exhibiting three sensory features, anosmia, loss of taste and dyschromatopsia, nine (16.98%) had all features concurrently. The study demonstrates that COVID-19 infection leads to altered TES representing dyschromatopsia -an ocular counterpart of anosmia, with little difference on CS.

Clinical correlates of pareidolias and color discrimination deficits in idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder and Parkinson's disease.

Visuoperceptual dysfunction is common in Parkinson's disease (PD) and is also reported in its prodromal phase, isolated REM sleep behavior disorder (iRBD). We aimed to investigate color discrimination ability and complex visual illusions known as pareidolias in patients with iRBD and PD compared to healthy controls, and their associating clinical factors. 46 iRBD, 43 PD, and 64 healthy controls performed the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test and noise pareidolia tests. Any relationship between those two visual functions and associations with prodromal motor and non-motor manifestations were evaluated, including MDS-UPDRS part I to III, Cross-Cultural Smell Identification Test, sleep questionnaires, and comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. iRBD and PD patients both performed worse on the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test and had greater number of pareidolias compared to healthy controls. No correlations were found between the extent of impaired color discrimination and pareidolia scores in either group. In iRBD patients, pareidolias were associated with frontal executive dysfunction, while impaired color discrimination was associated with visuospatial dysfunction, hyposmia, and higher MDS-UPDRS-III scores. Pareidolias in PD patients correlated with worse global cognition, whereas color discrimination deficits were associated with frontal executive dysfunction. Color discrimination deficits and pareidolias are frequent but does not correlate with each other from prodromal to clinically established stage of PD. The different pattern of clinical associates with the two visual symptoms suggests that evaluation of both color and pareidolias may aid in revealing the course of neurodegeneration in iRBD and PD patients.

The effect of color vision resolution on intra-oral shade-selection accuracy.

Dentists must be able to identify subtle color changes as shade-matching is crucial in aesthetic dentistry. To determine whether color discrimination ability is related to shade-matching accuracy among dentists. The sensitivity of the normal-color vision population to different colors was investigated using Farnsworth Munsell 100 Hue (FM-100) test results. The FM-100 test was administered to 37 dentists at the Hospital of Stomatology, Jilin University. Sensitivity of dentists with normal-color vision to different colors was investigated using the FM-100 test. Participants were instructed to arrange color caps of various colors according to the gradual change in colors and the results were scored. Visual shade matching test using Vita 3D-MASTER shade guide was performed to determine shade-matching accuracy. The relationship between color discrimination ability and shade-matching accuracy was analyzed. The number of misplaced color caps in the FM-100 test was also calculated. The FM-100 test revealed that 16 and 21 participants had excellent and average color discrimination ability, respectively, and their shade-matching accuracies were 68.75% and 66.67%, respectively. No significant difference was observed in the shade-matching accuracy between the two groups. No significant correlation was observed between the color discrimination ability and shade-matching accuracy. In addition, the number of wrong color caps on the 43-63 color tray with the transition from blue-green to blue-purple was the highest according to Friedman's test. Color discrimination ability of dentists does not affect their visual shade-matching accuracy. Additionally, people with normal color vision are not sensitive to the transition from blue-green to blue-purple.

Rapid measurement and machine learning classification of colour vision deficiency.

Colour vision deficiencies (CVDs) indicate potential genetic variations and can be important biomarkers of acquired impairment in many neuro-ophthalmic diseases. However, CVDs are typically measured with tests which possess high sensitivity for detecting the presence of a CVD but do not quantify its type or severity. In this study, we introduce Foraging Interactive D-prime (FInD), a novel computer-based, generalisable, rapid, self-administered vision assessment tool and apply it to colour vision testing. This signal detection theory-based adaptive paradigm computed test stimulus intensity from d-prime analysis. Stimuli were chromatic Gaussian blobs in dynamic luminance noise, and participants clicked on cells that contained chromatic blobs (detection) or blob pairs of differing colours (discrimination). Sensitivity and repeatability of FInD colour tasks were compared against the Hardy-Rand-Rittler and the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue tests in 19 colour-normal and 18 inherited colour-atypical, age-matched observers. Rayleigh colour match was also completed. Detection and discrimination thresholds were higher for atypical than for typical observers, with selective threshold elevations corresponding to unique CVD types. Classifications of CVD type and severity via unsupervised machine learning confirmed functional subtypes. FInD tasks reliably detect inherited CVDs, and may serve as valuable tools in basic and clinical colour vision science.

Investigation of the color discrimination ability using the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-hue test and structural changes by SS-OCT in patients with transfusion-dependent beta-thalassemia

AimThis study aimed to examine the color discrimination ability of patients with transfusion-dependent beta-thalassemia (TDβ-T) in detail using the Farnsworth Munsell (FM) 100-hue test and to evaluate structural changes by swept source-optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT). Material and methodsThis prospective, sectional study included 40 patients (79 eyes) with TDβ-T and 21 controls (42 eyes). The volunteers underwent a detailed ophthalmological examination and SS-OCT (DRI-OCT, Triton) imaging. Excluded were those with congenital color vision defects detected with the Ishihara pseudoisochromatic test. The patients’ color vision was examined using the FM 100-hue test. The total error score (TES), the blue-yellow local error score (b-y LES), and the red-green local error score (r-g LES) were calculated. p <0.05 was considered significant. ResultsThe mean age was 30.34±6.94 years in the patient group and 32.26±6.43 years in the control group (p = 0.078). The patient group had a significantly lower hemoglobin level (9.25±0.87 g/dL vs. 14±1.79 g/dL, p <0.001) and a significantly higher ferritin level (2665.56±2658.05 μg/L vs. 52.87±69.59 μg/L, p<0.001) compared to the control group. The mean TES, b-y LES, and r-g LES were higher in the patients than in the controls (64.84±30.18 vs. 28.45±16.55, p<0.001, 34.21±17.54 vs. 15.67±10.07, p <0.001, and 29.32±15.72 vs. 12.12±7.94, p<0.001, respectively). The patients had a higher b-y LES than r-g LES (34.21±17.54 vs. 29.32±15.72, p = 0.015). Choroidal thickness was lower in the patients than in the controls (284.34±63.55 µm vs. 324.98±88.05 µm, p = 0.043). ConclusionWe found that the color discrimination ability of the patients with TDβ-T was reduced in both the r-g and b-y color axes compared to the controls, and their color discrimination ability in the b-y color axis was more affected than in the r-g axis.

Color Vision in Blue Cone Monochromacy: Outcome Measures for a Clinical Trial.

Blue cone monochromacy (BCM) is an X-linked retinopathy due to mutations in the OPN1LW/OPN1MW gene cluster. Symptoms include reduced visual acuity and disturbed color vision. We studied BCM color vision to determine outcome measures for future clinical trials. Patients with BCM and normal-vision participants were examined with Farnsworth-Munsell (FM) arrangement tests and the Color Assessment and Diagnosis (CAD) test. A retrospective case series in 36 patients with BCM (ages 6-70) was performed with the FM D-15 test. A subset of six patients also had Roth-28 Hue and CAD tests. All patients with BCM had abnormal results for D-15, Roth-28, and CAD tests. With D-15, there was protan-deutan confusion and no bimodal tendency. Roth-28 results reinforced that finding. There was symmetry in color vision metrics between the two eyes and coherence between sessions with the arrangement tests and CAD. Severe abnormalities in red-green sensitivity with CAD were expected. Unexpected were different levels of yellow-blue results with two patterns of abnormal thresholds: moderate elevation in two younger patients and severe elevation in four patients ≥35 years. Coefficients of repeatability and intersession means were tabulated for all test modalities. Given understanding of advantages, disadvantages, and complexities of interpretation of results, both an arrangement test and CAD should be useful monitors of color vision through a clinical trial in BCM. Our pilot studies in BCM of arrangement and CAD tests indicated both were clinically feasible and interpretable in the context of this cone gene disease.

Elimination of the color discrimination impairment along the blue-yellow axis in patients with hypothyroidism after treatment with levothyroxine as assessed by the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test.

Our previous study has shown that individuals with untreated hypothyroidism display significantly higher partial error scores (P E S) along the blue-yellow axis compared to the red-green axis than normal individuals using the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test [J. Opt. Soc. Am. A37, A18 (2020)JOAOD60740-323210.1364/JOSAA.382390]. We wished to determine how color discrimination may change when hypothyroidism has been treated to the point of euthyroidism. Color discrimination was reassessed for 17 female individuals who had undergone treatment for hypothyroidism, and the results were compared with 22 female individuals without thyroid dysfunction. No statistically significant difference was found in the total error score (T E S) for the first and second measurements for both groups (p>0.45). The P E S for the hypothyroid group improved significantly in the previously impaired color regions after the treatment. Color discrimination defects found in untreated hypothyroidism can be negated with treatment of the condition over an appropriate time period.

Detection and Classification of Color Deficiency Using Hue Tests and Anomaloscope

Detection and Classification of Color Deficiency Using Hue Tests and Anomaloscope

Effects of eye dominance on shade matching and color perception among the dentist population.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of eye dominance on color perception, and shade matching. A total of 104 participants were selected for the study. There were 3 groups: Group I: 3rd and 4th year dental students and interns (n = 40); Group II: postgraduates (n = 34); Group III: senior residents and faculty members (≥ 6 years of clinical experience) (n = 30). All participants were evaluated for congenital color blindness with Ishihara plates, their dominant eye with Mile's test, and their color perception with the Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test. The shade guide test was used for shade matching with a second corresponding set of Vitapan classical shade guides. The results of Mile's test revealed that 60.6% were right-eye dominant and 39.4% were left-eye dominant. There was a statistically significant difference among all participants between the dominant eye and the non-dominant eye in shade matching. The dominant eye has a positive effect on shade matching and the ability to match shades becomes better with an increase in clinical experience.

Interrelationships Between Visual and Instrumental Measures of Ground Beef Color

Two experiments were conducted to understand the interrelationship among visual color score, Farnsworth-Munsell values, instrumental meat color measurements, and their impact on beef color evaluation. In experiment 1, L*, a*, and b* values and various reflectance traits of the Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue Test tiles were measured.Incremental changes of the tiles were used to predict changes in a* values and other color variables that can be seen by a trained visual panel. Regression analysis suggests that trained panelists that pass the Farnsworth-Munsell Hue Test can discriminate a change of 0.95 in a*, 0.9 in b*, and 2.54 in hue angle values when Illuminant A is used. In experiment 2, ground beef was assigned randomly to one of 36 combinations of 3 storage temperatures, 4 storage times, and 3 display temperatures to create a variety of surface colors. A 10% change in ground beef metmyoglobin content corresponded to 3.2 units of a* (R2=0.95). Of all the instrumental measurements, a* (r=−0.97) and chroma (r=−0.97) best represented the red color intensity that panelists saw on the surface of ground beef. Significant surface discoloration occurred at 37.1% metmyoglobin and an a* value of 25.4 (with Illuminant A). Using a 5-point visual lean color scale,the change required in a* value for a unit change visual color score was 4.6. In conclusion, a* and chroma are highly related to visual color scores and changes in metmyoglobin, and a change in a* of 0.95 can be observed by visual panelists that have passed the Farnsworth-Munsell test.

A methodological validation of psychophysical approaches for quantifying the color discrimination capability of white light sources

AbstractIn this study, three psychophysical approaches that quantify the color discrimination capability of white light sources were systematically compared. A total of 11 light sources, five of 5500 K and six of 3000 K, were tested in two groups using three typical psychophysical methods including the Farnsworth‐Munsell100 Hue Test, real objects observation and color blocks comparison. The experimental results show that the examined approaches led to consistent conclusions on the color discrimination performance of lighting but differences in the robustness, complexity, and comprehensiveness of the methods were observed. Interestingly, sex difference in color discrimination was found to be influenced by visual judgment protocols. Based on this validation, methodological suggestions for future research on the color discrimination of lighting are proposed.

Colour discrimination scores combining colour fidelity and gamut area characteristics

This paper investigated colour discrimination based on current available indexes, and predictors were proposed for global and targeted colour scenarios. Thirty participants conducted the Farnsworth–Munsell 100 hue test under 21 lighting conditions. The experiment results revealed that the distribution of total error score (TES) and adjusted total error score (TESadj) showed arc shapes centred on the optimal point (100, 100) in both Rf –Rg and colour rendering index–gamut area index coordinate systems. On this basis, global colour discrimination scores, CDS1 and CDS2, based on the colour fidelity and colour gamut characteristics, were proposed. The results demonstrated that both CDS1 ( r = 0.82, p &lt; 0.001) and CDS2 ( r = 0.81, p &lt; 0.001) provided good linear correlations with TES, and CDS1 ( r = 0.75, p &lt; 0.001) and CDS2 ( r = 0.77, p &lt; 0.001) also exhibited a good linear correlation with TESadj. Furthermore, the global colour gamut was divided into four local colour spaces (red–yellow, yellow–green, green–blue and blue–red), and the CDSs in the local gamut (CDSlocal and CDSadj,local) were constructed using the local colour properties, including Rcs,local, Rhs,local and Rf,local. The linear regression results demonstrated that CDSlocal ([Formula: see text]) and CDSadj,local ([Formula: see text]) can be effective colour discrimination predictors for the targeted colour scenarios.