Hot Layer Research Articles

Similarity between the Molecular Loops in the Galactic Center and the Solar Chromospheric Arch Filaments

Abstract We carried out two-dimensional magnetohydrodynamic simulations of the Galactic gas disk to show that the dense loop-like structures discovered by the Galactic center molecular cloud survey using the NANTEN 4-m telescope can be formed by a buoyant rise of magnetic loops due to the Parker instability. At the initial state, we assumed a gravitationally stratified disk consisting of a cool layer ($T$$\sim$ 10$^{3} $K), a warm layer ($T$$\sim$ 10$^{4} $K), and a hot layer ($T$$\sim$ 10$^{5} $K). The simulation box was a local part of the disk containing the equatorial plane. The gravitational field was approximated by that of a point mass at the Galactic center. The self-gravity, and the effects of the Galactic rotation were ignored. Numerical results indicate that the length of the magnetic loops emerging from the disk is determined by the scale height of the hot layer ($\sim$ 100 pc at 1 kpc from the Galactic center). The loop length, velocity gradient along the loops, and large velocity dispersions at their foot points are consistent with the NANTEN observations. We also show that the loops become top-heavy when the curvature of the loop is sufficiently small, so that the rising loop accumulates the overlying gas faster than sliding it down along the loop. This mechanism is similar to that in the formation of solar chromospheric arch filaments. The molecular loops emerge from the low-temperature layer just like the dark filaments observed in the H$\alpha$ image of the emerging flux region of the Sun.

Effects of spatially varying roof cooling on thermal convection at high Rayleigh number in a fluid with a strongly temperature-dependent viscosity

We investigate the effects of an insulating lid of variable spatial extent on convection in the stagnant-lid regime under thermally steady-state conditions. Using a combination of laboratory experiments, numerical simulations and scaling analyses we characterize the qualitative structure and quantitative heat transfer properties of flows in terms of the fractional extent L of an insulating lid applied at the cold boundary, the thermal resistance of the lid, the magnitude of the temperature dependence of the fluid viscosity Λ and the effective Rayleigh number Rae for the composite system. A partial insulating lid has two main effects: (i) To increase the mean interior temperature and reduce the average viscosity of the system, which enhances fluid motions, and (ii) to impart a lateral asymmetry to the thermal structure of the cold boundary that leads, in turn, to lateral temperature gradients that drive an overturning flow. Consequently, whereas flow in the uninsulated stagnant-lid regime is in the form of ‘small-scale’ rising and sinking thermals, there is an additional ‘large-scale’ circulation in the presence of partial insulation. The structure, wavelength and heat transfer properties of this large-scale stirring depends on L, Λ and Rae. For given Rae – Λ conditions we find optimal values of L at which there occur well-defined maxima in the rate of overturn, the local heat flux carried into the uninsulated part of the cold boundary and in the global average heat flux Nu carried across the system. Whereas both the rate of overturning and local heat flux are associated with the largest lateral temperature gradients, the optimal basal heat flux depends also on a tradeoff with the fractional surface area of the lid. Remarkably, maximal values of the global heat flux can significantly exceed that of the uninsulated stagnant-lid case. The occurrence of such maxima is insensitive to the mechanical boundary conditions applied and is not strongly influenced by lid shape. However, the magnitude and location of optimal heat fluxes depends in a complicated way on the lid surface area and shape, as well as the structure of the hot and cold boundary layers and the wavelength of the large-scale flow.

Limb darkening of the Call K line wings. Comparison with the average quiet Sun models

The detailed measurements of Call K line profiles along a diameter of the solar disk are presented. The obtained limb-darkening curves are used to test three semi-empirical models for the quiet Sun assuming moderate resolution. The calculations were carried out using the non-LTE code MULTI, taking into account a partial frequency redistribution. A comparative analysis of the measured and computed curves shows that the behavior of the Call K profiles from the center to the limb is sensitive to the temperature distributions of the semi-empirical models. The SRPM 305 model published by Fontenla et al. (2007) best reproduces the observed limb darkening in the region from the photosphere to the lower chromosphere; however, the agreement of this model with the observations at the line center is worse than for the other models, since this model was not assigned to describe hot chromospheric layers.

Experimental study on water spray suppression on burning upholstered chair in an enclosure with different application times

AbstractThe objective of this work is to investigate the effects of the application time of water spray on the burning upholstered chair in an enclosure. A series of experiments are conducted with the same water flow rate in an ISO 9705 fire test room in which a water spray system is installed. Several identical upholstered chairs are used in the experiments with the application times 20, 25, 30, 40 and 45 s after the ignition of upholstered chair, respectively. The results show that there is nearly an exponential relationship between the peak heat release rates and the relative application times of water spray. It is also shown that there is a polynomial relationship between the relative time for the peak heat release rate and the relative application time of water spray. However, there is an exponential relationship between the whole relative extinguishing time and the relative application time of water spray. A sudden increase is detected before the decreasing of CO generation rates after the water spray is applied on the burning upholstered chair. The average temperatures of the upper hot smoke layer under the ceiling will generally be lower with the earlier application of water spray. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Generation of Tonalitic and Dioritic Magmas by Coupled Partial Melting of Gabbroic and Metasedimentary Rocks within the Deep Crust of the Famatinian Magmatic Arc, Argentina

The source regions of dioritic and tonalitic magmas have been identified in a deep crustal section of the Famatinian arc (Sierras Pampeanas of western Argentina). The source zones of intermediate igneous rocks are located at the transition between a gabbro-dominated mafic unit and a tonalite-dominated intermediate unit. In the upper levels of the mafic unit mafic magmas intruded into metasedimentary wall-rocks, crystallized mainly as amphibole gabbronorite and caused the partial melting of the surrounding metasediments. In turn, the leucogranitic melts sourced from the metasedimentary rocks intruded into the newly crystallized but still hot mafic layers and catalysed the process of partial melting of the gabbroic plutonic rocks. The gabbroic rocks became mafic migmatites comprising amphibole-rich pyroxene-bearing mesosomes and leucotonalitic veins. Significantly, most of the mafic migmatites have isotopic compositions [87Sr/86Sr(T) < 0·7063 and εNd(T) = –0·94 to +2·24] similar to those of the gabbroic rocks and distinct from those of their complementary leucotonalitic veins [87Sr/86Sr(T) = 0·7075–0·7126 and εNd(T) < –2·65], providing evidence for the idea that melting of the mafic rocks was triggered by the intrusion of leucogranitic anatectic melts [87Sr/86Sr(T) = 0·715 and εNd(T) = –6·21]. Mass-balance calculations show that the model reaction plagioclase + amphibole + leucogranitic melt → leucotonalitic melt + clinopyroxene ± orthopyroxene can better explain the partial melting of the gabbroic rocks. Based on field observations, we argue that the coalescence of leucotonalitic veins in the mafic migmatites led to breakdown of the solid matrix to form melt-dominated leucotonalitic pools. However, the leucotonalitic veins that crystallized before leaving behind the mafic migmatitic rock are chemically (elemental and isotopic) more evolved than the dioritic and tonalitic rocks. We envisage that once detached from their source region the leucotonalitic magmas were able to react, commingle and mix with entrained fragments of both mafic and metasedimentary rocks. This process gave rise to melts that became tonalitic and dioritic magmas. This study concludes that the generation of intermediate magmas is a multistage process with three critical steps: (1) influx and emplacement of hydrous mafic magmas into a deep crust containing metasedimentary country rocks; (2) physically and chemically coupled melting of mafic and metasedimentary rocks, leading to the formation of a leucotonalitic vein and dyke system that coalesces to form leucotonalitic or tonalitic magma bodies; (3) retrogression of the leucotonalitic magmas by partially assimilating entrained fragments of their mafic and metasedimentary precursors. The dimensions of the source zone seem to be insufficient to generate crustal-scale volumes of intermediate igneous rocks. However, the Famatinian paleo-arc crust would expose only those magma source zones that were still active during the tectonic closure of the arc. Ultimately, a time-integrated perspective indicates that early active source zones were cannibalized during the downward expansion of the plutonic bodies already dominated by intermediate plutonic rocks.

Radiation thermo-chemical models of protoplanetary disks

This paper introduces a new disk code, called ProDiMo, to calculate the thermo-chemical structure of protoplanetary disks and to interpret gas emission lines from UV to sub-mm. We combine frequency-dependent 2D dust continuum radiative transfer, kinetic gas-phase and UV photo-chemistry, ice formation, and detailed non-LTE heating & cooling balance with the consistent calculation of the hydrostatic disk structure. We include FeII and CO ro-vibrational line heating/cooling relevant for the high-density gas close to the star, and apply a modified escape probability treatment. The models are characterized by a high degree of consistency between the various physical, chemical and radiative processes, where the mutual feedbacks are solved iteratively. In application to a T Tauri disk extending from 0.5AU to 500AU, the models are featured by a puffed-up inner rim and show that the dense, shielded and cold midplane (z/r<0.1, Tg~Td) is surrounded by a layer of hot (5000K) and thin (10^7 to 10^8 cm^-3) atomic gas which extends radially to about 10AU, and vertically up to z/r~0.5. This layer is predominantly heated by the stellar UV (e.g. PAH-heating) and cools via FeII semi-forbidden and OI 630nm optical line emission. The dust grains in this "halo" scatter the star light back onto the disk which impacts the photo-chemistry. The more distant regions are characterized by a cooler flaring structure. Beyond 100AU, Tgas decouples from Tdust even in the midplane and reaches values of about Tg~2Td. Our models show that the gas energy balance is the key to understand the vertical disk structure. Models calculated with the assumption Tg=Td show a much flatter disk structure.

Conjugate Calculation of Gas Turbine Vanes Cooled with Leading Edge Films

Conjugate calculation methodology is used to simulate the C3X gas turbine vanes cooled with leading edge films of “shower-head” type. By comparing calculated results of different turbulence models with the measured data, it is clear that calculation with the transition model can better simulate the flow and heat transfer in the boundary layers with leading edge film cooling. In the laminar boundary layers, on the upstream suction side, the film cooling flow presents 3D turbulent characteristics before transition, which quickly disappear on the downstream suction side owing to its intensified mixing with hot gas boundary layer after transition. On the pressure side, the film cooling flow retains the 3D turbulent characteristics all the time because the local boundary layers' consistent laminar flow retains a smooth mixing of the cooling flow and the hot gas. The temperature gradients formed between the cooled metallic vane and the hot gas can improve the stability of the boundary layer flow because the gradients possess a self stable convective structure.

Thickness of Saturn's ring current determined from north‐south Cassini passes through the current layer

We investigate magnetic field and plasma electron data from six Cassini orbits during which, unique within the mission to date, the spacecraft passed almost directly north‐south through Saturn's equatorial plane within the ring current region of the middle magnetosphere. Three passes took place in the postnoon sector and three took place in the postmidnight sector, each at radial distances of ∼9, ∼12, and ∼15 RS. (RS is Saturn's radius, equal to 60,268 km). These data allow for the first time an essentially direct determination of the north‐south field and plasma structure in this region at approximately constant radius and local time. The dayside data indicate the presence of an equatorial current disk with a near constant half‐thickness of ∼1.5 RS. Comparison of the magnetic data with simultaneous electron spectrograms shows that the current layer is located within a significantly broader layer of hot plasma. More variable conditions are found on the nightside. In the inner region a thin equatorial current layer of half‐thickness ∼0.5 RS is found embedded at the center of a much broader layer of current and plasma. In the central and outer passes the current sheet corresponds to essentially the whole of the hot equatorial electron layer, with a half‐thickness of ∼2.5 RS for the central pass, falling strongly to ∼0.4 RS for the outer pass. The data also provide confirmatory evidence of northward displacements of the center of the current layer from Saturn's equatorial plane in the outer regions, on both the dayside and the nightside of the planet.

Determination of the Smoke Layer Interface Height for Hot Smoke Tests in Big Halls

Hot smoke tests are required to carry out in the site of tall halls in the Far East including Hong Kong and Taiwan. The objective is to evaluate the performance of smoke exhaust systems. In the field tests, it is difficult to determine the smoke layer interface height, especially in those tall halls with irregular shapes. A common practice is to measure the vertical temperature profile at distance away from the test fire. The position with sharp changes of vertical temperature is taken as the hot air layer interface. In addition, the N-percentage rule on the measured vertical temperature profile was also applied. There are arguments on determining the percentage N. This point will be studied in this article based on hot smoke test results in five atriums of height up to 33 m. In the field tests, a 2 MW methanol pool fire was approved to generate heat. Smoke guns were used to generate tracers for observing the smoke layer. A thermocouple tree was placed at distance away from the test fire. Visual observations of smoke layer would be compared with the positions giving sharp changes in vertical temperature profile. The N-percentage rule was also applied to determine the smoke layer interface height based on the measured vertical temperature profiles. Values of N varied from 10, 15, and 20%. In this way, elevation of the hot air layer interface can be determined even when a clear smoke layer is not observed.

Simulation of airflow in one- and two-room enclosures containing a fire source

In this study, the airflow in a room that contains a heat source is simulated numerically. The flow is considered turbulent and buoyant. The results of the mathematical model are validated with available experimental data at specific locations in the domain. A simple geometry is adopted, consisting of a room with a door that plays the role of both inlet–outlet for the fluid (air). At the centre of the room a methane burner is placed to serve as a heat source. The problem is simulated using two turbulence models, the well-known standard k– ε model and the RNG k– ε model, both modified to account for buoyancy effects on turbulence. The burner is considered as a volumetric heat source. It is concluded that the fire plume development as well as the distributions of velocity and temperature are reasonably well predicted. Following this conclusion, both models are also applied to a different, more complex geometry that consisted of two rooms communicating via a door, while the heat source was placed in the first room. Unfortunately, there are no experimental data to compare with for this case, but the results appear plausible. Finally, important design factors, such as mass flow rates and neutral-plane heights, are calculated utilizing the CFD results, and are compared with those obtained by well-known empirical correlations. It is concluded that the bi-directional flow existing through the burning-room vent is similarly predicted by both turbulence models; the RNG k– ε model leading to higher, and more accurate predictions of temperature variations within the hot upper layer, at least for the single-room case.

A means to estimate thermal and kinetic parameters of coal dust layer from hot surface ignition tests

A method to estimate thermal and kinetic parameters of Pittsburgh seam coal subject to thermal runaway is presented using the standard ASTM E 2021 hot surface ignition test apparatus. Parameters include thermal conductivity ( k), activation energy ( E), coupled term ( QA) of heat of reaction ( Q) and pre-exponential factor ( A) which are required, but rarely known input values to determine the thermal runaway propensity of a dust material. Four different dust layer thicknesses: 6.4, 12.7, 19.1 and 25.4 mm, are tested, and among them, a single steady state dust layer temperature profile of 12.7 mm thick dust layer is used to estimate k, E and QA. k is calculated by equating heat flux from the hot surface layer and heat loss rate on the boundary assuming negligible heat generation in the coal dust layer at a low hot surface temperature. E and QA are calculated by optimizing a numerically estimated steady state dust layer temperature distribution to the experimentally obtained temperature profile of a 12.7 mm thick dust layer. Two unknowns, E and QA, are reduced to one from the correlation of E and QA obtained at criticality of thermal runaway. The estimated k is 0.1 W/m K matching the previously reported value. E ranges from 61.7 to 83.1 kJ/mol, and the corresponding QA ranges from 1.7 × 10 9 to 4.8 × 10 11 J/kg s. The mean values of E (72.4 kJ/mol) and QA (2.8 × 10 10 J/kg s) are used to predict the critical hot surface temperatures for other thicknesses, and good agreement is observed between measured and experimental values. Also, the estimated E and QA ranges match the corresponding ranges calculated from the multiple tests method and values reported in previous research.

La Influencia de la Temperatura Exterior sobre los Sistemas de Ventilación Natural en Grandes Atrios

Natural venting systems present numerous advantages opposite to the mechanical exhaust for the smoke control – a reduction in both facilities and maintenance costs–. Nevertheless, the influence of numerous factors affects significantly their efficacy: the architectural characteristics of the building, the direction and wind velocity, the proximity of tall buildings, the smoke temperature, the environmental interior and exterior temperatures, the existence of snow or ice on the ceiling, etc. All of them are important, but the influence of the environmental exterior temperature plays a decisive role. The goal of this Investigation Research was to evaluate the influence of the external temperature on the smoke movement and the hot layer descent regarding the efficacy of the natural venting systems installed for the smoke control in large atria. The analysis was developed using the ‘Fire Dynamics Simulator - FDS’ model (1), a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of fi re-driven fluid flow for the study of fire. The results demonstrated that a design that does not contemplate this factor can turn out to be inadequate, since it has a decisive influence to guarantee human safety. The obtained results showed very significant differences about the different parameters linked to the smoke movement in an atrium.

Study of the blowing impact on a hot turbulent boundary layer using Thermal Large Eddy Simulation

We investigate Thermal Large Eddy Simulation in a complex case using Trio U. We develop a thermal turbulent inflow condition based on parallel flows in order to simulate a turbulent thermal boundary layer. This inflow condition is tested with a turbulent channel flow. We show that it produces fine profiles for velocity and temperature. Later, this inlet condition is used in the case of blowing through a porous plate. Two different blowing regimes are studied: the classical turbulent boundary layer and the blown off boundary layer. Comparisons show that we obtain similar experimental and numerical profiles (Brillant, G., Husson, S., Bataille, F., 2008. Experimental study of the blowing impact on a hot turbulent boundary layer. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 51 (7–8), 1996–2005.). We finish with additional results obtained only through numerical simulations.

Numerical simulation of transient flow development in a naturally ventilated room

Numerical simulations were conducted to model the transient flow development in a naturally ventilated space containing a centrally located localized source of heat. The simulations were compared with a series of small-scale laboratory experiments and existing theoretical models. The aim of the work was to benchmark CFD models for time-dependent buoyancy-driven natural ventilation against previously published experimental results and theoretical models. The simulations agree well with experimental results during the initial development of the room stratification. The CFD results accurately predict the maximum depth of the hot buoyant layer at the top of the room as well as the steady-state interface height which separates the warm upper buoyant layer from the cooler air below. The simulations also predict well the time taken for the buoyant upper layer to reach its maximum depth. However, at longer times the results diverge. This may be due to thermal diffusion and mixing at the interface between the upper and lower layers due to the inflow from the floor level vents.

Soft X-ray components in the hard state of accreting black holes

Recent observations of two black hole candidates (GX 339-4 and J1753.5-0127) in the low-hard state ($L_{\rm{X}}/L_{\rm{Edd}}$ $\simeq$ 0.003-0.05) suggest the presence of a cool accretion disk very close to the innermost stable orbit of the black hole. This runs counter to models of the low-hard state in which the cool disk is truncated at a much larger radius. We study the interaction between a moderately truncated disk and a hot inner flow. Ion-bombardment heats the surface of the disk in the overlap region between a two-temperature advection-dominated accretion flow and a standard accretion disk, producing a hot ($kT_{\rm{e}}$ $\simeq$ 70 keV) layer on the surface of the cool disk. The hard X-ray flux from this layer heats the inner parts of the underlying cool disk, producing a soft X-ray excess. Together with interstellar absorption these effects mimic the thermal spectrum from a disk extending to the last stable orbit. The results show that soft excesses in the low-hard state are a natural feature of truncated disk models.

A mathematical model on interaction of smoke layer with sprinkler spray

A mathematical model was developed for predicting the downward descending behavior of the buoyant smoke layer under sprinkler spray. The behavior of the smoke layer was determined by considering the interaction between the drag force of the sprinkler spray and the buoyancy force of the hot smoke layer itself in the spray region. The smoke layer may be pulled down with its thickness increased at the center of the spray region due to the cooling and drag effects of the sprinkler spray, thus to form a downward “smoke logging” plume. In the mathematical model developed in this paper, the critical condition under which the smoke layer lost its stability, as a serious concern, was predicted. Additionally, the length of the downward plume, which was rarely investigated before, was also further calculated. Full-scale experiments were carried out to validate the model. Results showed that the predictions, including the critical condition and the length of the plume, by the mathematical model agreed well with that observed and measured in the experiments. The length of the downward plume was shown to increase with the sprinkler operating pressure by an approximately linear correlation.

Flashover Condition Analysis on Passenger Carriage Fire by Using Swallowtail Catastrophe Theory

Flashover in compartment fire itself is a catastrophe process. Its catastrophe behavior can be analyzed, and its topological function equation can also be set up by catastrophe theory. On the basis of analyzing swallowtail catastrophe characteristic, a flashover model of hot smoke layer, which is established based on energy conservation, is transformed in the dimensionless form firstly, and then diffeomorphism is applied to simplify it. By these transform, a catastrophe potential function is gained. The format of the catastrophe potential function makes it clear that this type of flashover belongs to swallowtail catastrophe. Subsequently, taking passenger carriage fire as an idiographic object, the connection between system control variable and burning condition is discussed. The results show that the space of catastrophe bifurcation in muster divide the fire into two section, namely flashover section and non-flashover section. If in flashover section, an unstable point can be obtained by using qualitative curve or differential coefficient curve of potential function. Furthermore, the temperature of hot smoke layer is calculated by the value of the critical point when flashover occurs. The calculation case of passenger carriage fire shows that the temperature of hot smoke layer is 625.3°C when flashover occurs in the carriage, which is agreement with real instance.

Pulsed ultrasonic mixing: An experimental study

This paper investigates the accelerated mixing of hot and cold liquid layers in storage tanks of different physical dimensions by the application of high-frequency, high-intensity pulsed ultrasound. In pulsed operation, the ultrasonic field is switched on for a few seconds and then switched off. This cycle is repeated several times. Pulsed mixing of hot and cold water due to ultrasonics was measured in this study. Acoustic streaming and cavitation phenomena associated with the ultrasonic field can induce enhanced mixing in the storage containers leading to de-stratification of liquid. The experimental results indicate that dual frequency operation, which combines one high-frequency mode with one low-frequency mode, is optimal in enhancing mixing compared to other frequencies. Mixing efficiency increases with cavitation intensity and the introduction of acoustic streaming augments it further. The experimental result indicates that as the height of the cylinder increases, the mixing time also increases. The ultrasonic mixing times obtained for different frequencies indicate that as the frequency increases, the time required to reach the steady state temperature also increases, due to decrease in cavitation intensity.

Modelling the composition of melts formed during continental breakup of the Southeast Greenland margin

We have developed a generic dynamic model of extension of the lithosphere, which predicts major element composition and volume of melt generated from initial extension to steady state seafloor spreading. Stokes equations for non-Newtonian flow are solved and the mantle melts by decompression. Strengthening of the mantle due to dehydration as melting progresses is included. The composition is then empirically related to depletion. Using a crystallisation algorithm, the predicted primary melt composition was compared with mean North Atlantic mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB). At steady state, using half spreading rates from 10 to 20 mm yr − 1 and mantle potential temperatures of 1300 to 1325 °C we predict a major element composition that is within the variation in the mean of North Atlantic MORB. This model is applied to the Southeast Greenland margin, which has extensive coverage of seismic and ODP core data. These data have been interpreted to indicate an initial pulse of magmatism on rifting that rapidly decayed to leave oceanic crustal thickness of 8 to 11 km. This pattern of melt production can be recreated by introducing an initial hot layer of asthenosphere beneath the continental lithosphere and by having a period of fast spreading during early opening. The hot layer was convected through the melt region giving a pulse of high magnesian and low silica melt during the early rifting process. The predicted major element composition of primary melts generated are in close agreement with primary melts from the Southeast Greenland margin. The observed variations in major element composition are reproduced without a mantle source composition anomaly.

Study of Water Droplet Behavior in Hot Air Layer in Fire Extinguishment

Evaporation of water droplets while traveling in hot air layer will be studied. The air-droplet system is analyzed by solving the mass, momentum and energy conservation equations for each phase. The droplet phase is described by the Lagrangian approach. Two conditions of air flow in the smoke layer are assumed. Firstly, as commonly used in modeling fire suppression by water spray, the smoke layer is assumed to be quiescent. Secondly, both gas cooling effect and air entrainment in the water spray cone are included. The properties of gas phase related to evaporation are specific heat capacity, thermal conductivity and dynamic viscosity. All these are evaluated by the one-third rule. The Runge–Kutta algorithm is used to solve the ordinary differential equation group for the droplet motion with heat transfer. Droplet positions, velocities, temperatures and diameters are calculated while traveling in the hot air reservoir. The effects of air temperature, water vapor mass fraction, thickness of hot air reservoir, and initial diameter on the droplet behavior are analyzed. The quantity of heat absorbed by a single droplet is calculated. Results are then calculated for a water spray by taking it has many droplets. The cooling effect of the water vapor produced is considered. Water spray consisting of small droplets should absorb more heat while acting on the hot air layer. The ratio of the heat for vaporization to the total heat absorbed by water can go up to 0.9 when all the droplets are evaporated. Limited experimental data are selected to verify the mathematical model. Predicted results are useful for studying fire suppression by water mist system.