Hot Charge Research Articles

Au-based heterostructure composites for photo and electro catalytic energy conversions

In recent decades, the innovative green technologies of electrocatalysis and photocatalysis have been urgently developed for energy as well as environmental concerns. In photocatalysis, traditional semiconductors exhibit minor visible light absorption that shows poor photocatalytic performance. The plasmonic gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) have superior absorption cross-sections for visible light by means of localized SPR excitation, which emit hot charge carriers and then vastly improve the photocatalytic activity in the wide applications of dye decomposition, organic synthesis, water splitting, N2 fixation, CO2 reduction. Regarding to electrocatalytic energy conversion, Au-based nanocomposites possess versatility and high stability (e.g., high resistance to CO poisoning). Thus, nanogold electrocatalysts reveal outstanding performances in the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR) and CO2 reduction reaction (CO2RR). This Review summarizes the progress in utilizing plasmonic gold NPs for photocatalytic and electrocatalytic energy conversions. The activity of size-dependent and metal structures,the fundamental understanding of molecular activation and catalytic mechanisms are also discussed in detail. Future efforts are expected to achieve new promising catalysts to encounter the prerequisite of industrial and extensive practical applications.

Gain recovery dynamics in active type-II semiconductor heterostructures

Type-II heterostructures as active layers for semiconductor laser devices combine the advantages of a spectrally broad, temperature stable, and efficient gain with the potential for electrical injection pumping. Their intrinsic charge carrier relaxation dynamics limit the maximum achievable repetition rates beyond any constraints of cavity design or heat dissipation. Of particular interest are the initial build up of gain after high-energy injection and the gain recovery dynamics following depletion through a stimulated emission process. The latter simulates the operation condition of a pulsed laser or semiconductor optical amplifier. An optical pump pulse injects hot charge carriers that eventually build up broad spectral gain in a model (Ga,In)As/GaAs/Ga(As,Sb) heterostructure. The surplus energies of the optical pump mimic the electron energies typical for electrical injection. Subsequently, a second laser pulse tuned to the broad spectral gain region depletes the population inversion through stimulated emission. The spectrally resolved nonlinear transmission dynamics reveal gain recovery times as fast as 5 ps. These data define the intrinsic limit for the highest laser repetition rate possible with this material system in the range of 100 GHz. The experimental results are analyzed using a microscopic many-body theory identifying the origins of the broad gain spectrum.

Graphene Oxide-Wrapped Gold Nanorods for Direct Plasmon-Enhanced Electrocatalysis to Detect Hydrogen Peroxide and in the Hydrogen Evaluation Reaction

The modulation of electronic characteristics of a two-dimensional (2-D) graphene oxide (GO) nanosheet with plasmonic hot charge carrier doping is of great scientific prominence for improving and expanding its diverse applications in health and energy fields. Herein, we report a nanohybrid system of reduced GO-wrapped gold nanorods (GNRs) for plasmon acceleration under localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) excitation photoelectrochemical (PEC) biosensing of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), followed by the early-stage detection of human cancer cells as well as hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) for energy production. A tremendously sensitive H2O2 biosensor device is constructed (GNRs@rGO/GC), which exhibits ∼4-fold enhanced electrocatalytic activity under 808 nm LSPR excitation (2 W/cm2), with a wide linear range from 5 μM to 10 mM, along with a lower limit of detection and sensitivity of 2.35 μM and 30.26 μA mM–1 cm–2, respectively. It is now proposed that the enhanced generation of hot charge carriers followed by their effective transportation and separation and an attentive electromagnetic field with a photothermal effect mainly contribute to the superior photoelectrocatalysis reaction, which is also directly related to the pH of a medium, light wavelength, and light intensity. The electrode device is finally applied for the PEC biosensing of cancer cells (HeLa) by measuring the current response of a released cancer biomarker (H2O2). Herein, we also report the plasmon-accelerated superior HER catalytic performance by the GNRs@rGO/GC device, where we found the decreased onset potential of 90 mV with an overpotential (η) of −0.386 V at 10 mV cm–2 and a Tafel slope of ∼81 mV dec–1 under LSPR excitation. This study reveals the plasmon-enhanced electrochemical performances of a plasmonic@2-D SC heterostructure nanohybrid material and henceforth makes it a potential candidate for electroanalysis, electrochemical energy conversion, electrochemical devices, and biomedical applications.

Probing Bidirectional Plasmon-Plasmon Coupling-Induced Hot Charge Carriers in Dual Plasmonic Au/CuS Nanocrystals.

Heterostructured Au/CuS nanocrystals (NCs) exhibit localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) centered at two different wavelengths (551 and 1051nm) with a slight broadening compared to respective homostructured Au and CuS NC spectra. By applying ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopyweshow that a resonant excitation at the respective LSPR maxima of the heterostructured Au/CuS NCs leads to the characteristic hot charge carrier relaxation associated with both LSPRs in both cases. A comparison of the dual plasmonic heterostructure with a colloidal mixture of homostructured Au and CuS NCs shows that the coupled dual plasmonic interaction is only active in the heterostructured Au/CuS NCs. By investigating the charge carrier dynamics of the process,wefind that the observed interaction is faster than phononic or thermal processes (< 100fs). The relaxation of the generated hot charge carriers is faster for heterostructured nanocrystals and indicates that the interaction occurs as an energy transfer (we propose Landau damping or interaction via LSPR beat oscillations as possible mechanisms) or charge carrier transfer between both materials.Ourresults strengthen the understanding of multiplasmonic interactions in heterostructured Au/CuS NCs and will significantly advance applications where these interactions are essential, such as catalytic reactions.

Metallic plasmons significantly boosted visible-light photocatalytic hydrogen evolution from water splitting

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) of Ni nanoparticles has been studied to promote the generation of hot electrons, charge transfer and separation over g-C3N4/Ni@C plasmonic photocatalysts, resulting in boosted visible-light photocatalytic H2 evolution from water splitting.

Schottky-barrier-free plasmonic photocatalysts.

Plasmonic photocatalysis has recently attracted much attention in enhancing the solar-to-chemical conversion efficiency (SCCE) owing to localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), whose energy can be synthetically varied from the ultraviolet through the visible to the near-infrared region. This wide variability is inaccessible by traditional semiconductor photocatalysts. However, for all-metal plasmonic photocatalysts, the photogenerated hot charge carriers have an ultrashort lifetime because of their rapid recombination. For most metal-semiconductor hybrid plasmonic photocatalysts, a large portion of plasmonic hot charge carriers is lost during transfer from the metal to the semiconductor because of the Schottky barrier formed at the metal-semiconductor interface. As a result, both types of plasmonic photocatalysts exhibit limited SCCEs. To overcome the aforementioned shortcomings, a new type of plasmonic photocatalyst, the Schottky-barrier-free plasmonic photocatalyst, has been proposed recently. This type of plasmonic photocatalyst not only possesses LSPR to generate abundant hot charge carriers, but is also Schottky-barrier-free so that the hot charge carriers can be utilized more sufficiently to drive redox reactions. In this perspective, we first discuss the different types of plasmonic photocatalysts using representative examples, then introduce Schottky-barrier-free plasmonic photocatalysts, and finally provide the major challenges and remaining questions of this new type of plasmonic photocatalyst. We believe this perspective will offer insight into the further development of plasmonic photocatalysis and the improvement of its SCCEs.

鋳片浸漬冷却時の変態，3次元熱処理変形および応力発生の各挙動に及ぼす冷却条件およびγ粒サイズの影響

To optimize reverse transformation treatment, which is effective in preventing hot rolling cracking in the CC-HCR (Continuous Casting - Hot Charge Rolling) process, three-dimensional metallo-thermo-mechanical analyses were performed. The metallo-thermo-mechanics and a CCT (Continuous Cooling Transformation) diagram estimation method using JMatPro were used to obtain the required cooling time for reverse transformation in immersion cooling with water jet and to elucidate the effects of nonuniform cooling and γ grain size on thermal deformation and stress generation behaviors during cooling and the mechanisms of these events.

Photo-enhanced dehydrogenation of formic acid on Pd-based hybrid plasmonic nanostructures.

Coupling visible light with Pd-based hybrid plasmonic nanostructures has effectively enhanced formic acid (FA) dehydrogenation at room temperature. Unlike conventional heating to achieve higher product yield, the plasmonic effect supplies a unique surface environment through the local electromagnetic field and hot charge carriers, avoiding unfavorable energy consumption and attenuated selectivity. In this minireview, we summarized the latest advances in plasmon-enhanced FA dehydrogenation, including geometry/size-dependent dehydrogenation activities, and further catalytic enhancement by coupling local surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) with Fermi level engineering or alloying effect. Furthermore, some representative cases were taken to interpret the mechanisms of hot charge carriers and the local electromagnetic field on molecular adsorption/activation. Finally, a summary of current limitations and future directions was outlined from the perspectives of mechanism and materials design for the field of plasmon-enhanced FA decomposition.

UV–Vis–NIR broad spectral photodetectors facilely fabricated with nonmetal plasmonic WO3−x nanosheets

Plasmonic metal nanostructures have been widely applied in photodetectors for the enhanced light response range and sensitivity. In contrast, photodetection based on surface plasmon effect of the emerging plasmonic nonmetals has not been investigated. Here, single nonmetal plasmonic WO3−x nanosheets were used as the sensing material for UV–Vis–NIR broad spectral photodetectors. The plasmonic WO3−x nanosheets were synthesized by solvothermal and follow-up thermal treatment in a hydrogen-containing atmosphere, which exhibited a localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) band centered at 899 nm with broad spectral absorption spanned from UV to NIR. Then photodetectors fabricated facilely by depositing Au electrodes on a film of WO3−x nanosheets showed sensitive response for the regulation of conductance through the plasmonic hot free charge carriers. The responsivity and detectivity were 52 mA/W and 1.46 × 108 Jones under an incident light with a wavelength of 980 nm with an ultralow bias of 0.01 V, and went up to 538 mA/W and 4.75 × 108 Jones under 0.1 V. The results demonstrate the great potential of nonmetal plasmonic materials for photodetection.

Enhancing the photocatalytic regeneration of nicotinamide cofactors with surface engineered plasmonic antenna-reactor system

A rational design of photocatalytic materials is essential to efficiently extract the photogenerated charge carriers, en route to achieving the desired chemical transformations. Here, we have incorporated the concept of ‘favorable catalyst-reactant interaction’ into the ‘antenna-reactor system’ to enhance the efficiency of charge carrier extraction in plasmonic photocatalysis. The benefits of coupling these two emerging strategies are utilized for the efficient visible-light photocatalyzed regeneration of nicotinamide cofactors. The photocatalytic antenna-reactor system comprises gold-rhodium nanoflowers (Au@Rh NFs), which are functionalized with negatively charged surface ligands to bring the favorable electrostatic interactions into action. The dual role of rhodium nanoparticles (RhNPs) – as an electron acceptor and as a reactor site – ensures an efficient extraction of the hot charge carriers from the plasmonic AuNP to the RhNP, and further to the reactants. Likewise, the introduction of favorable electrostatic interaction helps in channeling the electron mediators close to the catalyst surface, thereby enhancing the probability of the charge transfer process. Both these factors play a crucial role in the enhanced photocatalytic regeneration of nicotinamide cofactors by the Au@Rh NFs based antenna-reactor system. The photocatalytic activity of Au@Rh NFs based antenna-reactor system is well-retained for multiple cycles, proving their suitability for applied studies as well. Thus, our work showcases the power of coupling different concepts in plasmonic photocatalysis for enhancing the charge extraction process, which can be easily extended to different classes of solar to chemical fuel conversions.

Titanium carbide MXenes-initiated plasmonic metal-support interaction for effective photocatalysis on uncoated Ag nanoparticles

Localized surface plasmon resonances enable the effective harvesting of visible-light photons and yield energetic electrons and holes on short timescale in plasmonic nanoparticles (NPs). However, the balance between the higher stability (which requires stabilizing ligands) and the higher photocatalytic activity (which prefers a clean surface for adsorbing reactant molecules and diminishing the charge-recombination rate) is still a challenge, limiting the efficiency of light utilization. Herein, we show that by forming uncoated Ag-Ti3C2 nanohybrids via in situ reduction, the photocatalytic performance of plasmonic Ag NPs is promoted with the benefit of plasmonic metal-support interaction with Ti3C2 MXenes. The photodegradation efficiency of the organic pollutant methyl orange is elevated from 1.0% to 96.5% due to the excellent metal-like conductivity of Ti3C2 and Schottky barriers of interfacial Ag-TiO2-x. This work reveals the assistance of MXenes for stabilizing the illuminated Ag NPs and boosting efficient hot charge carrier separations in direct plasmonic photocatalysis.

Piezoelectric effect enhanced plasmonic photocatalysis in the Pt/BaTiO3 heterojunctions

The use of piezoelectric internal field to assist in photocatalysis is important for inexpensive and high-efficiency catalytic techniques. In this study, novel Pt/BaTiO3 heterojunctions were prepared via decoration of Pt nanoparticles (PtNPs) on the surface of piezoelectric BaTiO3 nanocubes through a facile photoreduction process. The photocatalytic, piezo-catalytic, and piezo-photocatalytic activities of the Pt/BaTiO3 heterojunctions for methyl orange (MO) degradation were investigated under ultrasonic excitation and/or full-spectrum light irradiation. The weight percentage of PtNPs, piezoelectric internal field of BaTiO3, and plasmonic effect have been proven important for the photocatalytic activity of the heterojunctions. The Pt0.25/BaTiO3 with 0.25 wt% PtNPs exhibited an optimum photocatalytic degradation performance of 92.5% for MO in 50 min under full-spectrum light and ultrasonic co-excitation, and this value was about 1.35 times higher than the degradation rate under full-spectrum light irradiation alone. Well-dispersed PtNPs in the Pt/BaTiO3 heterojunction can be excited by incident light to generate an electromagnetic field caused by the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) effect, which drives the collective oscillation of electrons and generate hot electron–hole pairs. The piezoelectric internal field generated in BaTiO3 due to ultrasonic excitation can improve the separation efficiency of SPR-induced hot charge carriers and contribute to the production of highly reactive oxidation radicals, thereby enhancing the catalytic capability of the heterojunction to oxidize organic dyes. This study introduces the piezoelectric effect of BaTiO3 into plasma photocatalysis to enhance the photocatalytic activity of Ptx/BaTiO3 heterojunction, and this effect can be extended to other piezoelectric material systems to provide an effective technology for environmental purification.

Plexcitonic interactions in spherical and bi-pyramidical Au nanoparticles with monolayer WSe2

Plasmons associated with zero-dimensional (0D) metal nanoparticles and their synergistic interactions with excitons in two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors offer opportunities for remarkable spectral tunability not otherwise evident in the pristine parent materials. As a result, an in-depth study elucidating the nature of the plasmonic and excitonic interactions, jointly referred to as plexcitons, is critical to understanding the foundational aspects of the light–matter interactions in hybrid 0D–2D systems. In this work, our focal point is to examine the plexcitonic interactions of van der Waals (vdWs) hybrid structures composed of 2D WSe2 and 0D Au nanoparticles (Au-NPs) in their spherical (Au-Sp) and bi-pyramidical (Au-BP) architectures. The geometry-dependent surface plasmon resonance (SPR) peaks in Au-Sp and Au-BP nanoparticles were deciphered using ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) optical absorption spectroscopy, while photoluminescence spectroscopy revealed the excitonic behavior in the vapor synthesized monolayer (1L) WSe2 as well as the Au-Sp/WSe2 and Au-BP/WSe2 hybrids. Furthermore, our temperature-dependent and wavelength-dependent optoelectronic transport measurements showed a shift in the spectral response of 1L WSe2 toward the SPR peak locations of Au-Sp and Au-BP, mediated via the plexciton interactions. Models for the plexcitonic interactions are proposed, which provide a framework to explain the photoexcited hot charge carrier injection from AuNPs to WSe2 and their influence on carrier dynamics. Our findings demonstrate that geometry-mediated response of the AuNPs provides another degree of freedom to modulate the carrier photodynamics in WSe2, which can also be useful for tailoring the optoelectronic performance of the broader class of semiconducting 2D materials.

Ni-doped A-site excess SrTiO3 thin films modified with Au nanoparticles by a thermodynamically-driven restructuring for plasmonic activity

Plasmonically active nanoparticles offer a promising pathway to extend the absorption range of photocatalysts. While not necessarily catalytically active themselves, these particles allow the absorption of lower energy photons in wide band gap photocatalysts. Here, we present A-site excess SrTiO3 thin films, doped with Ni, where through a subsequent exsolution process we created well-socketed Ni nanoparticles in the surface of SrTiO3. These were galvanically replaced by Au, resulting in well-socketed Au nanoparticles with variable size on the surface, depending on the galvanic replacement time. Photoelectrochemical measurements and electron energy loss spectroscopy revealed the improved photoresponse of the thin films by plasmonic activity of the nanoparticles. The energy of the plasmon peak suggests that the main improvement results from the injection of hot charge carriers. Our study opens new avenues for the design and synthesis of the next generation of photocatalytic materials.

Scattering of hot charge carriers in solid solutions of dielectric crystals with substitutional disorder

The spatial distribution of the components that make up the substitutional solid solution is non-uniform. The randomness of substitution leads to the formation of a random potential acting on secondary electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valence band. The random potential is one of the factors that significantly affect the migration, localization, and recombination of a given charge carriers. The influence of another factor, the energy structure of the conduction band, was considered for a substitutional solid solution of the AxB1−xC type in the model of multiple parabolic branches of the electron dispersion law. The transport mean free paths for the cases of elastic scattering of electrons by potential fluctuations and inelastic scattering of electrons by LA and LO phonons were calculated. It was shown that the presence of several parabolic branches of the electron dispersion law in the conduction band in all cases leads to a significant reduction in transport mean free paths compared to the model of one parabolic branch of the electron dispersion law in the conduction band.

Effect of Material and Shape of Nanoparticles on Hot Carrier Generation

Nonradiative decay of photoexcited plasmons generates energetic nonthermal charge carriers. These hot charge carriers play a major role in plasmonic photocatalysis and photovoltaics. Therefore, establishing the relationship between the hot carrier generation efficiency and the structural and chemical parameters of nanoparticles is crucial for developing highly efficient plasmonic catalysts and photovoltaic materials. In this study, we compare the quantum efficiency of hot carrier generation between gold (AuNPs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), and spherical (AuNSs) and cubic gold nanoparticles (AuNCs). We construct nanoparticle-on-mirror (NPoM) systems where reactant molecules are positioned in the nanogaps between the nanoparticles and gold films. Excitation of the NPoM at 785 nm, followed by the detection of products using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy allows us to measure the plasmon-driven reaction yields. Dividing the reaction yield by the calculated absorption cross section at the excitation laser wavelength provides the efficiency of hot carrier generation per absorbed photon. We reveal that AgNPs are more effective at generating hot carriers than AuNPs, which is consistent with the higher electron-surface scattering rate of AgNPs. The hot carrier generation of AuNCs is marginally better than that of AuNSs, which can be attributed to the enhanced electric fields inside the AuNCs in the nanogap region. This study contributes to a rational design of plasmonic catalysts or photovoltaic materials of higher efficiencies.

Charge Transfer Dynamics at the Interface of CsPbX3 Perovskite Nanocrystal‐Acceptor Complexes: A Femtosecond Transient Absorption Spectroscopy Study

AbstractCsPbX3 (X = I–, Br–, Cl–) perovskite nanocrystals (PeNCs) are being explored extensively due to their impressive optoelectronic and photonic properties. Efficient harvest of photogenerated charge carriers from the particle is essential for photon‐to‐current conversion and enhancement of the performance of PeNC‐based photovoltaic and optoelectronic applications. Since photoinduced charge transfer (CT) from the particle usually occurs on sub‐picosecond to nanosecond timescales, time‐resolved transient absorption (TA) spectroscopy is a powerful technique to investigate this transient dynamic photoinduced process. Herein reported investigations are reviewed, primarily employing femtosecond TA spectroscopy, of the CT process in CsPbX3 PeNCs. Based on the interpretation of TA spectral features and the basic model of CT dynamics, the concerns of CT rates or efficiency characterization in TA measurements, including multiple CT pathway effects, surface ligand effects, and hot charge carrier extraction are addressed. An elucidation of plasmon‐induced hot electron transfer is also provided in CsPbX3 PeNC‐noble metal heterostructures for their promising potential to contribute the development of CsPbX3 PeNC‐based hot carrier devices. It is hoped that this review can provide deeper insights into the photovoltaic conversion in order to make the most of the CT process in CsPbX3 PeNCs.

Plasmonic reactivity of halogen thiophenols on gold nanoparticles studied by SERS and XPS

Localized surface plasmon resonances on noble metal nanoparticles (NPs) can efficiently drive reactions of adsorbed ligand molecules and provide versatile opportunities in chemical synthesis. The driving forces of these reactions are typically elevated temperatures, hot charge carriers, or enhanced electric fields. In the present work, dehalogenation of halogenated thiophenols on the surface of AuNPs has been studied by surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) as a function of the photon energy to track the kinetics and identify reaction products. Reaction rates are found to be surprisingly similar for different halothiophenols studied here, although the bond dissociation energies of the C–X bonds differ significantly. Complementary information about the electronic properties at the AuNP surface, namely, work-function and valence band states, has been determined by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of isolated AuNPs in the gas-phase. In this way, it is revealed how the electronic properties are altered by the adsorption of the ligand molecules, and we conclude that the reaction rates are mainly determined by the plasmonic properties of the AuNPs. SERS spectra reveal differences in the reaction product formation for different halogen species, and, on this basis, the possible reaction mechanisms are discussed to approach an understanding of opportunities and limitations in the design of catalytical systems with plasmonic NPs.

Plasmonic Hybrid Nanostructures in Photocatalysis: Structures, Mechanisms, and Applications.

(Sun)Light is an abundantly available sustainable source of energy that has been used in catalyzing chemical reactions for several decades now. In particular, studies related to the interaction of light with plasmonic nanostructures have been receiving increased attention. These structures display the unique property of localized surface plasmon resonance, which converts light of a specific wavelength range into hot charge carriers, along with strong local electromagnetic fields, and/or heat, which may all enhance the reaction efficiency in their own way. These unique properties of plasmonic nanoparticles can be conveniently tuned by varying the metal type, size, shape, and dielectric environment, thus prompting a research focus on rationally designed plasmonic hybrid nanostructures. In this review, the term "hybrid" implies nanomaterials that consist of multiple plasmonic or non-plasmonic materials, forming complex configurations in the geometry and/or at the atomic level. We discuss the synthetic techniques and evolution of such hybrid plasmonic nanostructures giving rise to a wide variety of material and geometric configurations. Bimetallic alloys, which result in a new set of opto-physical parameters, are compared with core-shell configurations. For the latter, the use of metal, semiconductor, and polymer shells is reviewed. Also, more complex structures such as Janus and antenna reactor composites are discussed. This review further summarizes the studies exploiting plasmonic hybrids to elucidate the plasmonic-photocatalytic mechanism. Finally, we review the implementation of these plasmonic hybrids in different photocatalytic application domains such as H2 generation, CO2 reduction, water purification, air purification, and disinfection.

Microwave Spark Plug to Support Ignitions With High Compression Ratios

Upcoming gasoline engines should run with a larger number of fuels beginning from petrol over methanol up to gas by a wide range of compression ratios and a homogeneous charge. In this article, the microwave (MW) spark plug, based on a high-speed frequency hopping system, is introduced as a solution, which can support a nitrogen compression ratio up to 1:39 in a chamber and more. First, an overview of the high-speed frequency hopping MW ignition and operation system as well as the large number of applications are presented. Both gives an understanding of this new base technology for MW plasma generation. Focus of the theoretical part is the explanation of the internal construction of the spark plug, on the achievable of the high voltage generation as well as the high efficiency to hold the plasma. In detail, the development process starting with circuit simulations and ending with the numerical multiphysics field simulations is described. The concept is evaluated with a reference prototype covering the frequency range between 2.40 and 2.48 GHz and working over a large power range from 20 to 200 W. A larger number of different measurements starting by vector hot- <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$S_{11}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> measurements and ending by combined working scenarios out of hot temperature, high pressure and charge motion are winding up the article. The limits for the successful pressure tests were given by the pressure chamber. Pressures ranged from 1 to 39 bar and charge motion up to 25 m/s as well as temperatures from 30° to 125°.