Host Country Conditions Research Articles

Prevalence and predictors of depression, anxiety, and stress among refugees in Egypt

BackgroundMany Refugees show multiple distressing psychological and mental health problems associated with stressful and adverse conditions in host countries. Even though Egypt is one of the top five destination countries hosting refugees and asylum-seekers in the MENA region, there is a lack of studies investigating mental health problems among refugees in Egypt. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and predictors of depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms among refugees living in Egypt.MethodsA total of 398 refugees aged 18 and above were interviewed from migrants’/refugees' community centers in Giza, Alexandria, Dakahlia, and Damietta governorates. A predesigned structured interview questionnaire was used to collect socio-demographic and migration-related variables. The Arabic Version of Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) was used to assess the presence and severity of the three negative emotional states.ResultsNearly two-thirds of the participants were Syrian (66.4%). The majority resided in Alexandria and Giza governorates (75.9%), were females (73.4%), and were married (71.1%). The most reported migration difficulty was housing (41.5%). Anxiety symptoms were reported among 63.3% (95% CI: 58.59%- 68.05%) of sampled refugees, followed by depression (61.3%, 95% CI: 56.52%-66.10%), and stress symptoms (51.5%, 95% CI: 46.56%-56.36%). Results of regression analysis showed that; female gender predicted anxiety (aOR 2.419, 95% CI: 1.485–3.941, p < 0.001) and stress (aOR 2.053, 95% CI: 1.197–3.519, p = 0.009), while younger age groups (18–25 yr. and 26–50 yr.) compared to the older age group (51 yr. and older) predicted depression (aOR 4.529, 95% CI: 1.696–12.097, p = 0.003 and aOR 2.177, 95% CI: 1.270- 3.733, p = 0.005, respectively) and stress (aOR 4.334, 95% CI: 1.556–12.074, p = 0.005 and aOR 1.808, 95% CI: 1.023–3.193, p = 0.041, respectively). Residence in Alexandria, housing, and employment difficulties predicted anxiety (aOR 2.354, 95% CI: 1.420–3.902, p < 0.001, aOR 1.726, 95% CI: 1.073–2.778, p = 0.025, and aOR 3.044, 95% CI: 1.248–7.425, p = 0.014, respectively), depression (aOR 1.949, 95% CI: 1.163–3.266, p = 0.011, aOR 1.666, 95% CI: 1.036–2.681, p = 0.035, and aOR 3.216, 95% CI: 1.321–7.828, p = 0.010, respectively), and stress (aOR 2.450, 95% CI: 1.431–4.195, p < 0.001, aOR 1.911, 95% CI: 1.187–3.078, p = 0.008, and aOR 4.482, 95% CI: 1.867–10.760, p < 0.001, respectively).ConclusionMental health problems are prevalent among the refugee population in Egypt that are compounded by the difficult post-migration socio-economic situation. Multisectoral attention towards refugees’ mental health is urgently needed.

Working conditions and mental health of migrants and refugees in Europe considering cultural origin– a systematic review

BackgroundMigrants and refugees/asylum seekers, as a large part of the European work force, are often confronted with unfavorable working conditions in the host country. Main aim of this systematic review was to compare the association of these working conditions with mental health between migrants and refugees/asylum seekers due to their diverse migration experiences and cultural origins, and between different European host countries.MethodsSystematic search for eligible primary studies was conducted in three electronic databases (PubMed/MEDLINE, PsycINFO and CINAHL) using quantitative study designs written in English, German, French, Italian, Polish, Spanish or Turkish and published from January 1, 2016 to October 27, 2022. Primary health outcomes were diagnosed psychiatric and psychological disorders, suicide and suicide attempts, psychiatric and psychological symptoms, and perceived distress. Secondary health outcomes were more general concepts of mental health such as well-being, life satisfaction and quality of life. Two reviewers independently completed screening, data extraction and the methodological quality assessment of primary studies using the Newcastle-Ottawa-Scale. Descriptive summary of primary studies on working conditions and their relationship with mental health were conducted, comparing migrants and refugees/asylum seekers, migrants and refugees/asylum seekers of different cultural backgrounds (collectivistic and individualistic) and migrants and refugees/asylum seekers living in different host countries.ResultsInclusion criteria were met by 19 primary studies. Voluntary migrants are more likely to experience overqualification in the host country than refugees. In all examined host countries, migrants and refugees suffer from unfavorable working conditions, with migrants from collectivistic countries being slightly at risk compared to migrants from individualistic countries. Most unfavorable working conditions are related to poor mental health, regardless of migrant status, cultural origin or host country.ConclusionsAlthough the results should be interpreted with caution due to the small number of studies, it is evident that to maintain both the mental health and labor force of migrants and refugees/asylum seekers, their working conditions in host countries should be controlled and improved. Special attention should be paid to specific subgroups such as migrants from collectivistic societies.Ethics and disseminationThis systematic review is excluded from ethical approval because it used previously approved published data from primary studies.Trial registration numberCRD42021244840.

The internationalization of state-owned enterprises in liberalized markets: the role of home-country pro-market reforms

We study how home-country factors can alter the impact of host-country conditions on the location decisions of state-owned enterprises (SOEs). Specifically, we examine the role of home-country pro-market reforms in facilitating SOEs’ entry into host countries with a free-market logic. We consider two types of home-country pro-market reforms: market liberalization and privatization. We propose that home market liberalization mainly mitigates SOEs’ market legitimacy deficit and facilitates their entry into host countries with a prominent free-market logic. In such contexts, businesses perceive SOEs from more liberalized home markets as more accustomed to market competition and thus are less likely to exert pressure on the host government against them. We also argue that furthering SOEs’ privatization mitigates SOEs’ political legitimacy deficit in host countries with a free-market logic, thus facilitating entry. In these contexts, host governments perceive more privatized SOEs as more independent from their home state due to reduced political connections. We find support for our arguments in a dataset of 97 telecom SOEs from 97 countries over the period 1990–2010. Our study advances research on SOEs’ internationalization and research on pro-market reforms and has relevant implications for managers and policymakers.

Діджиталізація як чинник швидкої інтернаціоналізації стартапів

The article defines the essence of the concept of "global startups", and examines the factors influencing their emergence and rapid spread in the global economy. The size of the local market, the state of development of the national innovation ecosystem, the number and availability of re-sources, the level of competition in the domestic market, state protection of intellectual property rights and technologies, etc. The authors summarized the approaches to interpreting the essence of the internationaliza-tion and digitalization processes and investigated their impact on global startup entrepreneurship. It was found that the connection between digitalization and the internationalization of startups is sig-nificant, as entrepreneurs increasingly use information and communication technologies in their dai-ly activities to analyze national and international market information, sell products or services, or contact potential customers, suppliers, or strategic customers and partners. Digitalization refers to the use of digital infrastructure, the Internet as a medium for selling products and services and cre-ating value for customers. Attention is focused on the importance of digitalization for the early internationalization of startups. Systematized key factors of the internationalization of start-up firms: institutional envi-ronment of the home and host country, industry and market conditions of the country of origin and host country, state of development of formal and informal institutions, access to venture and social capital networks, availability of knowledge about foreign markets, leadership and entrepreneurial traits cofounders of startups, their cultural traits and cognitive skills, the presence of global think-ing and broad business orientation of startup founders. Based on the analysis of the success stories of domestic startups on the global market, the conditions and features of the emergence of global startups of Ukrainian origin were studied. For local startups to enter international markets, strategies for their rapid internationaliza-tion have been identified: joining international professional associations, integrating the local busi-ness into the system of European and global value-added chains, and developing bilateral plans for industry and key economic areas of the country.

Rooted Challenges: Palestinian Refugees’ Right to Work in Lebanon

Abstract Since the Arab-Israeli War of 1948, the Palestinian refugees are still waiting to exercise their right of return, which was articulated in General Assembly Resolution 194 and approved by dozens of international resolutions. Despite the wait, Palestinian refugees continue to live in unsustainable conditions in many host countries. In these waiting stations, they are still deprived of many rights. Perhaps Lebanon is one of the most extreme waiting stations in depriving Palestinian refugees their rights, especially the right to work. Indeed, Palestinians are facing considerable obstacles to exercise their right to work in Lebanon because of policies and regulations enacted by the Lebanese government which limit this right. This paper attempts to identify the various Lebanese partisan and sectarian points of view that stand in the way of granting Palestinian refugees their right to work and the recent administrative attempts of the Lebanese government (2021) to grant them this right. In addition, it uncovers the legal and political obstacles faced by these attempts. This paper highlights the continued need of Palestinian refugees in Lebanon for various social, political and international actions to grant them their basic rights in order to preserve human dignity, which cannot be achieved without these rights.

Die Lebenszufriedenheit von Geflüchteten in Deutschland – auch eine Frage von Aufnahmelandbedingungen, Assimilation und Zugehörigkeit?

ZusammenfassungHintergrundDie Lebenszufriedenheit von Geflüchteten stellt einen Indikator für das subjektive Wohlbefinden dar und gibt einen Einblick, wie die Lebenssituation als Ganzes von dieser vulnerablen Gruppe eingeschätzt wird. Bisherige Untersuchungen zeigen auf, dass u. a. gesundheitliche Belastungen im Zusammenhang mit einer niedrigen Lebenszufriedenheit von Geflüchteten stehen.FragestellungIm Mittelpunkt des Beitrags steht die Frage, inwieweit aus Sicht der Geflüchteten die wahrgenommenen Aufnahmelandbedingungen sowie die Assimilation und die Zugehörigkeit im Zusammenhang mit der Lebenszufriedenheit stehen.MethodikDie Frage wird anhand der IAB-BAMF-SOEP-Befragung von Geflüchteten untersucht und die Aufnahmelandbedingungen (Fairnesserfahrung mit Behörden, Gefühl von Willkommensein, Institutionenvertrauen), die Assimilation (Aufenthaltsdauer, deutsche Sprachkenntnisse, Kontakthäufigkeit zu Deutschen im Freundeskreis) und die Zughörigkeit (Anzahl Freund*innen, Zugehörigkeitsgefühl) mittels einer Korrelations- und Regressionsanalyse in Zusammenhang mit der Lebenszufriedenheit ausgewertet.ErgebnisseDie bi- und multivariaten Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Indikatoren für die Aufnahmeland- und die Zugehörigkeitshypothese signifikant mit der Lebenszufriedenheit zusammenhängen.SchlussfolgerungenDie Lebenszufriedenheit von Geflüchteten kann vor allem durch die Verbesserung der Aufnahmelandbedingungen und der Förderung von Zugehörigkeitsprozessen gestärkt werden.

The impact of institutional quality on country-level variations in foreign equity shares in transition economies

PurposeThis paper aims to examine the influence of formal and informal institutional quality on country-level variations in foreign equity shares in transition economies (TEs).Design/methodology/approachDrawing on institutional theory and transaction cost theory, this paper examines the influence of formal and informal institutional quality on country-level variations in foreign equity shares in TEs. The authors use a two-step empirical strategy, identifying clusters of explanatory variables and running generalized least squares random effect estimations to test for the influence of explanatory and control variables on foreign equity shares.FindingsForeign equity share is positively affected by informal institutions and negatively by formal institutions. However, when control for stage of transition we find that the the presence of informal institutions in more rapidly or advanced transforming economies negatively influences foreign equity shares. Complex infrastructure discourages foreign equity shareholdings, and foreign companies use informal practices to overcome unfavourable host country conditions. Government size has a negative effect, and gross domestic product per capita positively affects foreign equity shares.Research limitations/implicationsThe study is the new groundwork for the re-enactment of a fruitful discussion on foreign equity. The study has practical implications for managers, too – managers of foreign-owned firms operating in weakly installed institutional environments should carefully analyse the entry strategies because of the high presence of informal institutions. Furthermore, managers could understand the various facilitation roles of informal institutions in any firm internationalisation effort to arrive at optimal ownership holdings for better internationalisation performance. Although the study is based on a sample of transition countries, the findings have implications for other emerging economies’ contexts sharing similar institutional settings.Originality/valueThis study provides a unique empirical investigation and evidence based on country-level indicators on the effect of formal and informal institutions on foreign equity shares holdings in TEs, reinforcing the importance of impacts of both the formal and informal dimensions on ownership decisions of foreign investors.

The Dynamics of Refugee Return: Syrian Refugees and Their Migration Intentions

AbstractWe study the drivers of refugees' decision making about returning home using observational and experimental data from a survey of 3,003 Syrian refugees in Lebanon. We find that the conditions in refugee-hosting countries play a minor role. In contrast, conditions in a refugee's home country are the main drivers of return intentions. Even in the face of hostility and poor living conditions in host countries, refugees are unlikely to return unless the situation at home improves significantly. These results challenge traditional models of decision making about migration, where refugees weigh living conditions in the host and home countries (“push” and “pull” factors). We offer an alternative theoretical framework: a model of threshold-based decision making whereby only once a basic threshold of safety at home is met do refugees compare other factors in the host and home country. We explore some empirical implications of this new perspective using qualitative interviews and quantitative survey data.

MNEs’ CSR Decoupling: How Host-Country Stakeholder Pressures Matter

The literature suggests that organizations tend to use corporate social responsibility (CSR) as a means to establish and enhance legitimacy, particularly when they operate internationally. Meanwhile, organizations that adopt voluntary CSR initiatives, such as the United Nations Global Compact (UNGC), may decouple symbolic CSR claims from actual CSR performance. Despite extensive research on organizational decoupling and the legitimation strategies of multinational enterprises (MNEs), we have limited understanding of how host-country conditions affect MNEs’ CSR decoupling. Building on the idea of decoupling in institutional theory and the research on corporate adoption of voluntary codes of conduct, this paper analyzes how host-country stakeholder pressures will discourage CSR decoupling of MNEs that adopt the UNGC. We also identify possible contingencies, host country press freedom, and institutional and normative distances between home and host countries, and investigate how they moderate MNEs’ responses to host-country stakeholder pressures. We test our theory using an international sample of the UNGC signatories during the period 2007-2018. Our main analyses rely on a dataset containing 4,359 observations for 305 listed firms from 36 home countries, with negative CSR events (i.e., corporate violations of the UNGC principles) taking place in 117 host countries. The results support our predictions.

A new global division of labour in venture capital flows: Coupang’s IPO success at the New York Stock Exchange

ABSTRACT Coupang, which is an international spinoff of Softbank Vision Fund, chronicled a gargantuan IPO success at the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) in 2021. Coupang is similar in many respects to Softbank’s earlier accomplishment with Alibaba’s IPO at the NYSE. By focusing on the success factors of the IPO at the NYSE and Coupang’s domestic business in South Korea, we advocate four propositions on the nature of global venture capital firms that try to link actual e-commerce markets in East Asia with the global centers of IPOs in the US. This study also deals with corporate governance in the new e-commerce sector, political risks and labor union militancy in a host country, predictors and contextual conditions of IPOs at the NYSE and the dual class system of shares and financial structures in a host country.

Cross‐border expansion of digital platforms and transformation of the trade and distribution networks of imported fresh fruits from Southeast Asia to China

AbstractSince the late 2000s, digital platforms have developed rapidly and expanded extensively to various industries of the global economy. Existing literature on the rise of digital platforms has primarily focused on the national‐level context, while overlooking their cross‐border dynamics and subsequent effects on the reconfiguration of cross‐border production networks/value chains. Among the agri‐food sector, the fresh fruits sector is one of many that have undergone profound restructuring induced by the increasing penetration of digital platforms. In an attempt at making connections between the insights of the burgeoning platforms and global production networks (GPN)/global value chains (GVC) literatures, this study develops an interconnected analytical framework to examine the cross‐border expansion of China's digital platforms and resultant digital platform‐driven transformation of regional trade and distribution networks/value chains in the evolving regulatory and market conditions in home and host countries. Based on the onsite field investigations in Vietnam, Thailand and China during the late 2018 and early 2020, this study explores the emerging platform conglomerates through domestic intra‐platform and cross‐border interplatform vertical integration and extra‐platform partnership in the cross‐border expansion to the upstream trade and downstream distribution of fresh fruit imports from Southeast Asia toward China's market. The contributions of the article lie in three aspects. First, it enriches the platform literature by incorporating the cross‐border dynamics and expansion of digital platforms. Second, it advances the GPN/GVC literature by highlighting the power of digital platforms as new types of lead firms in the digital transformation of production networks/value chains. Third, it sheds light on the emerging China market‐oriented reconfiguration of the Southeast Asian fresh fruit production networks coordinated by the Chinese platform conglomerates. The analytical framework developed in this study could hopefully be extended to examine digital platform‐driven restructuring of a wider array of industries across variegated territories in the digital global economy.

Monetary policy spillovers under COVID-19: Evidence from lending by U.S. foreign bank subsidiaries

This paper uses Call Report data to examine the impact of home country monetary policy on foreign bank subsidiary lending in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic. Examining a large sample of foreign bank subsidiaries and domestic U.S. banks, we find that foreign bank lending growth was positively associated with both lower home country policy rates and negative home country rates. Point estimates indicate that a one standard deviation decrease in home country policy rates was associated with a 3.5 percentage point increase in lending growth, while negative home country policy rates added an additional 3.0 percentage points on average. Disparities in sensitivity to home country rates also exist by bank size, as large banks exhibited more responsiveness to home country policy rate levels, but were less responsive to negative policy rates. Easier home country policy rates are also found to impact negatively on growth in capital ratios and bank income, in keeping with expanded foreign subsidiary activity. However, income responses to negative home country rates are mixed, in a manner suggesting balance sheet adjustment to changes in relative home and host country conditions. Overall, our findings confirm that the bank lending channel for global monetary policy spillovers was active during the pandemic crisis.

Varieties of Capitalism, Environmental Risk and Readiness, and MNCs’ Environmental Performance

The environmental impacts of large multinational companies (MNCs) are attracting increasing scrutiny as the climate crisis intensifies. In this study, we extend prior research that has examined the role of country-level institutions on MNCs’ corporate environmental performance (CEP) by exploring interdependencies between home- and host-country conditions and between institutional and ecological country characteristics. Specifically, we theorize that multinational companies’ home-country Variety of Capitalism (VoC) affects their CEP by shaping firms’ comparative advantages in environmental performance, and by acting as an interpretive schema by which host-country conditions are evaluated and responded to. We test our theoretical propositions using a large sample of 3,994 MNCs headquartered in 72 countries over the time period 2009 to 2018 Findings show that MNCs’ environmental performance is shaped significantly by host-country characteristics, and that MNCs’ home-country VoC also significantly moderates the impacts of host-country influences on MNCs’ CEP. We find that firms’ home country variety of capitalism asymmetrically affects how home- and host-country institutional conditions influence CEP: for CME MNCs, home country institutional readiness complements firm CEP, but host-country institutional readiness substitutes for firm CEP, with the opposite being true for LME MNCs. Thus, add to debates regarding how varieties of capitalism influence forms of pro-social firm behavior by highlighting their asymmetric importance for home and host-country conditions.

How do refugees navigate the UNHCR’s bureaucracy? The role of rumours in accessing humanitarian aid and resettlement

In conflict situations, rapid changes can occur in the conditions in both host and home countries. In the context of such uncertainty, how do refugees navigate the bureaucratic apparatus of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) to obtain humanitarian aid and resettlement? We carried out fieldwork in 2019 in Lebanon and found the UNHCR’s bureaucracy to be a ‘black box’ for refugees in relation to the provision of information on humanitarian aid and resettlement. In this context of limited information, we found that rumours – widely considered to be uncertain truths – contributed to shaping participants’ understanding of the UNHCR’s decisions on the provision of aid and resettlement. In this article, we highlight the interpretive aspect of rumours and argue that refugees engage in interpretive labour as a result of the unequal relationship between themselves and the UNHCR’s opaque bureaucracy and provision of information. While refugees have to provide the UNHCR with detailed and highly personal information in interviews and household inspections, officers provide refugees with only generic responses, leading refugees to make their own interpretations of the bureaucratic decision-making processes. We conceptualise this interpretive labour as a collective process that contributes to generating rumours among refugee groups.

Nature-based experiences of immigrants from Turkey in Gothenburg

ABSTRACT The economic, ecological, and social lives of migrants are neither independent of places they emigrate nor their homeland. This dependency push immigrants to carry their historical and cultural conditions of homelands to host countries. The cultural networks between immigrants provide the reproduction of the culture in the migrated places. The social structures determined by the culture at the local scale are transferred to different places via the migration mechanism. The specific qualities of each host localities can define the boundaries of cultural ties. In other words, the economic, ecological, and social conditions of the host country determine the limits of this cultural interaction. Specific host country conditions can adjust the boundaries of culture more sensitive to local qualities. Thus, immigrants offer a unique opportunity to define how each locality understands and sets its specific and current conditions and how cultures are transferred from local to the host countries. Based on this perspective, I tried to examine how migrants from Turkey in Gothenburg convey their interactions with nature according to the specific sensitivity of the host localities.

Early pregnancy overweight/obesity and length of residence among immigrants in Sweden: a pooled analysis of Swedish population registers between 1992 and 2012.

To examine whether the association between women's origin and early pregnancy overweight and obesity (OW/OB) varies by length of residence in Sweden. This cross-sectional observational study used pooled Swedish population register data from 1992 to 2012. Logistic regression models were run to estimate odds ratios (OR) of early pregnancy OW/OB and 95 % confidence intervals (95 % CI), comparing Swedish-born and immigrants by length-of-residence categories while adjusting for covariates. Sweden. In total, 1 771 821 pregnant women, 315 992 of whom were immigrants. With longer residence in Sweden, more immigrant women from various origins exhibited higher odds of experiencing early OW/OB compared with Swedish-born women. Findings specifically showed increased odds of early pregnancy OW/OB with increasing length of residence for women born in Latin America, Europe-27 and Southeast Asia. For example, immigrant women from Latin America residing in Sweden for < 6 years showed similar odds as Swedish-born (OR≤ 5 years 0·92, 95 % CI 0·87, 0·98), while their longer residing counterparts showed higher odds than Swedish-born women (OR6-15 years1·21, 95 % CI 1·14, 1·28 and OR≥ 16 years 1·68, 95 % CI 1·59, 1·78). Mixed results were found for other origins. The current study suggests that host country conditions might play an important role in explaining OW/OB among some groups of immigrant women. Although further studies are needed to disentangle the mechanisms that generate these health inequalities, policy efforts should focus on immigrant reception and early integration to prevent pregnancy-related OW/OB.

A merry host makes bolder guests: An analysis of cross‐border investment choices of Chinese firms

AbstractThis article explores the influence of a host country's conditions on foreign equity investment decisions made by China‐based firms using the assumptions of the institutional theory and transaction cost approach. We use multinomial logit regression to analyze a sample of 1,018 cross‐border investments by Chinese firms categorized into majority acquisitions, minority acquisitions, joint ventures (JVs), and venture capital. According to our findings, Chinese investors prefer to conduct foreign direct investment in the same industry. This, in turn, highlights their desire to gain market influence and learn or obtain strategic knowledge and resources. Furthermore, taxation is proved to encourage the establishment of foreign JVs. The interaction between the host country's tax levels and majority acquisitions in the same industry reveals the concern of Chinese investors with after‐tax returns and influence in the new market.

Business Networks and Enclave Formation: Why Foreign Direct Investment Fails to Transfer Technology

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) frequently fails to provide transfers of important ideas and technologies to host countries. Incorporating insights from network theory, we argue that this is a predictable outcome of foreign investment because there is a natural tendency among multinational enterprises (MNEs) toward enclave formation. MNE subsidiaries face risks associated with poor information in host countries, which they mitigate by partnering with known firms in their existing business networks. In-group dynamics and network inertia perpetuate the closed nature of foreign enclaves and prevent technology transfer to the local enterprises. Thus, rather than specific host country conditions – absorptive capacity, institutions, or culture – a general tendency toward enclaves among MNEs works against local technology transfer. We illustrate this tendency with three cases that a-priori should not be characterized by poor levels of technology transfer: the electronics clusters in Guadalajara, Mexico and Costa Rica and the automotive sector in Ontario, Canada. Recognizing the role of business networks in shaping MNE behavior has important analytical implications for scholars and underlines the importance of policymakers moving beyond FDI attraction to local network-building policy instruments.

International Law and Legal Regimes of Foreign Direct Investment in Selected African Countries

International Law and Legal Regimes of Foreign Direct Investment in Selected African Countries

Electricity Consumption and Economic Growth in BRI Countries: Panel Causality and Policy Implications

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to estimate the relationships between electricity consumption and economic growth in 45 BRI countries during 1990–2015. The empirical results indicate that there are unidirectional short-run and long-run causality relationships running from economic growth to electricity consumption in all-countries and low and medium-income countries. A unidirectional long-run causality running from economic growth to electricity consumption is observed for high-income countries and the bi-directional short-run causality is found in OPEC countries. In the future, green power cooperation with consideration of host country conditions and environmental constraints should be promoted in BRI countries.