Horizontal Bed Research Articles

Automatic determination of first-motion polarity and its application to focal mechanism analysis of microseismic events

A method for automatically determining first-motion polarities is developed, with a view to its application to the focal mechanism analysis of massive microseismic events caused by hydraulic fracturing. The method is based on two assumptions: the existence of a point source, which has negligible effects of fault finiteness and rupture directivity; and a laterally homogeneous structure, which has azimuthally isotropic propagation characteristics. Under these assumptions, the event waveforms recorded at each station share a common source time function shape, with varying amplitudes, that is dependent on the radiation pattern from the source. With respect to the reference waveform with the highest signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) among all the waveforms at each station for an event, the relative polarities of waveforms at other stations are estimated using cross correlation analysis. The absolute polarities of each waveform are then defined using the reference waveform, whose SNR can be further enhanced using the stacked waveforms after corrections of relative polarities and time lags between the reference and target waveforms have been made. Then, a grid-search algorithm can be incorporated to invert focal mechanisms using the automatically measured polarities for a given event. Since the procedure requires only the evaluation of a cross-correlation coefficient, it can be incorporated into an automated algorithm. The method is applied to determine the focal mechanism solutions of microseismic events occurring in a shale gas play where commercial production is ongoing. Two types of focal mechanism solutions are found to be dominant: vertical dip-slip, and strike-slip. The strike-slip events occur due to re-activation of natural fractures connecting cracks opened by hydraulic fracturing. For the vertical dip-slip events, it was observed that their strikes are consistent with the direction of maximum horizontal stress, which supports the theory that slips occur on the horizontal bedding planes due to the opening of vertical cracks generated by hydraulic fracturing.

Monitoring the evolution and migration of a methane gas plume in an unconfined sandy aquifer using time-lapse GPR and ERT

Fugitive methane (CH4) leakage associated with conventional and unconventional petroleum development (e.g., shale gas) may pose significant risks to shallow groundwater. While the potential threat of stray (CH4) gas in aquifers has been acknowledged, few studies have examined the nature of its migration and fate in a shallow groundwater flow system. This study examines the geophysical responses observed from surface during a 72day field-scale simulated CH4 leak in an unconfined sandy aquifer at Canadian Forces Base Borden, Canada, to better understand the transient behaviour of fugitive CH4 gas in the subsurface. Time-lapse ground-penetrating radar (GPR) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) were used to monitor the distribution and migration of the gas-phase and assess any impacts to groundwater hydrochemistry. Geophysical measurements captured the transient formation of a CH4 gas plume emanating from the injector, which was accompanied by an increase in total dissolved gas pressure (PTDG). Subsequent reductions in PTDG were accompanied by reduced bulk resistivity around the injector along with an increase in the GPR reflectivity along horizontal bedding reflectors farther downgradient. Repeat temporal GPR reflection profiling identified three events with major peaks in reflectivity, interpreted to represent episodic lateral CH4 gas release events into the aquifer. Here, a gradual increase in PTDG near the injector caused a sudden lateral breakthrough of gas in the direction of groundwater flow, causing free-phase CH4 to migrate much farther than anticipated based on groundwater advection. CH4 accumulated along subtle permeability boundaries demarcated by grain-scale bedding within the aquifer characteristic of numerous Borden-aquifer multi-phase flow experiments. Diminishing reflectivity over a period of days to weeks suggests buoyancy-driven migration to the vadose zone and/or CH4 dissolution into groundwater. Lateral and vertical CH4 migration was primarily governed by subtle, yet measurable heterogeneity and anisotropy in the aquifer.

Effect of sedimentary environment on shale lithofacies in the lower third member of the Shahejie Formation, Zhanhua Sag, eastern China

Research on shale lithofacies is important for shale oil and gas production. This study focused on the lower third member of the Shahejie Formation ([Formula: see text]) in the Luo-69 well in the Zhanhua Sag, Jiyang Depression, Bohai Bay Basin, eastern China. Several methods, including thin section observations, total organic carbon (TOC) analysis, X-ray diffraction analysis, quantitative evaluations of minerals by scanning electron microscopy, major and trace-element analyses, and field emission-scanning electron microscopy, are used to investigate the effect of sedimentary environment on the type and distribution of shale lithofacies. Our research indicates that 36 types of shale lithofacies can be classified based on the TOC content, mineral composition, and sedimentary structure, of which five types are identified in the study area. The [Formula: see text] shale has a high calcareous mineral content (average of 49.64%), low clay and siliceous minerals contents (averages of 19.54% and 19.02%, respectively), a high TOC content (average of 3.00 wt%), and well-developed horizontal bedding. The sedimentary environment during the deposition of the [Formula: see text] shale in the Zhanhua Sag had a warm and moist climate, limited provenance, saline water, and strong reducibility. The sedimentary environment in the early stage had a drier climate, more limited provenance, higher salinity, and stronger reducibility than that in the later stage. Shale lithofacies can reflect a certain sedimentary environment and depositional process; similarly, a depositional environment controls the type and distribution of shale lithofacies. Due to the characteristics of the [Formula: see text] sedimentary environment, organic-rich massive mixed shale, organic-rich bedded mixed-calcareous shale, organic-rich laminated calcareous shale, and organic-fair laminated calcareous shale are developed in the [Formula: see text] formation from top to bottom.

Effect of 14 days of experimental horizontal bed rest on circulating levels of irisin

Effect of 14 days of experimental horizontal bed rest on circulating levels of irisin

A STUDY ON WAVE-INDUCED PARTICLE VELOCITIES IN FLUID MUD LAYER

Cohesive sediments can be found in many coastal zones all over the world. The upper layer of these muddy coasts may be fluidized under the wave action. Fluid mud is also formed by settlement of fine particles when the waves and currents exert a small shearing stress on the bed. When the waves pass over the fluid mud layer, it absorbs wave energy and, in turn, moves due to the wave action. The present study offers a numerical and experimental study of wave-mud interaction on a horizontal bed. A number of wave flume laboratory tests are presented to investigate wave attenuation, particle velocities in fluid mud layer and mud mass transport under different wave characteristics. The laboratory results are also compared with a developed semi-analytical model.

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ABOUT BED PATTERNS IN THE SHOALING REGION UNDER REGULAR WAVES AND REFLECTING CONDITIONS

This research is an experimental study of ripple dynamic for regular waves propagating on horizontal and sloping beds in mid- and high-reflective conditions. Small-scale laboratory experiments were carried out on shoaling region (with non breaking waves) and sediment transport in bedload regime. Our experiments showed the key role that plays the reflection in ripple development. The spatial modulation of the free surface elevation due to reflection created sandbars. Ripples grew up in the region where sandbars were appearing. These patterns were gradually reproduced from breakwater to offshore. The incidence of sandbar created a bi-modal structure of ripple geometry. The larger ripples appeared in the crest of sandbars whereas smaller ripples were found in the troughs. Furthermore, it was found that the evolution of ripples at these two locations can be explained by means of different growth mechanisms. Finally, at equilibrium stages, ripple height converges reaching the same height along the sandbar while ripple length and steepness remains almost constant.

RANS-VOF modeling of hydrodynamics and sand transport under full-scale non-breaking and breaking waves

A 2D RANS-VOF model is used to simulate the flow and sand transport for two different full-scale laboratory experiments: i) non-breaking waves over a horizontal sand bed (Schretlen et al., 2011) and ii) plunging breaking waves over a barred mobile bed profile (Van der Zanden et al., 2016). For the first time, the model is not only tested and validated in terms of water surface and outer flow hydrodynamics, but also in terms of wave boundary
 layer processes and sediment concentration patterns. It is shown that the model is capable of reproducing the outer flow (mean currents and turbulence patterns) as well as the spatial and temporal development of the wave boundary layer. The simulations of sediment concentration distributions across the breaking zone show the relevance of accounting for turbulence effects on computing suspended sediment pick-up from the bed.

Experimental study and modeling of particle drying in a continuously-operated horizontal fluidized bed

Multistage fluidized beds are frequently used for product drying in industry. One advantage of these fluidized beds is that they can achieve a high throughput, when operated continuously. In this study, γ-Al2O3 particles were dried in a pilot-scale horizontal fluidized bed, without considering any comminution effects. For each experiment, the particle moisture content distribution and residence time distribution were determined. To take into account particle back mixing in our experiments, a one-dimensional population balance model that considers particle residence time was introduced into a fluidized bed-drying model. Experimental particle residence time distributions were reproduced using a tank-in-series model. Subsequently, the moisture content distribution was implemented, as a second dimension to the population balance in this model. These two-dimensional simulations were able to describe the experimental data, especially the spread in the residual particle moisture distribution, much more accurately than one-dimensional simulations. Using this novel two-dimensional model, the effects of different operating parameters (process gas temperature, solid feed rate, superficial air velocity) on the particle moisture content distribution were systematically studied.

A numerical method for the solution of the nonlinear turbulent one-dimensional free surface flow equations

Free surface flow of an incompressible fluid over a shallow plane/undulating horizontal bed is characteristically turbulent due to disturbances generated by the bed resistance and other causes. The governing equations of such flows in one dimension, for finite amplitude of surface elevation over the bed, are the Continuity Equation and a highly nonlinear Momentum Equation of order three. The method developed in this paper introduces the “discharge” variable q = η U, where η = elevation of the free surface above the bed level, and U = average stream-wise forward velocity. By this substitution, the continuity equation becomes a linear first-order PDE and the momentum equation is transformed after introduction of a small approximation in the fifth term. Next, it is shown by an invertibility argument that q can be a function of η: q = F(η), rendering the momentum equation as a first order, second degree ODE for F(η), that can be be integrated by the Runge-Kutta method. The continuity equation then takes the form of a first order evolutionary PDE that can be integrated by a Lax-Wendroff type of scheme for the temporal evolution of the surface elevation η. The method is implemented for two particular cases: when the initial elevation is triangular with vertical angle of 120 ∘ and when it has a sinusoidal form. The computations exhibit the physically interesting feature that the frontal portion of the propagating wave undergoes a sharp jump followed by tumbling over as a breaker. Compared to other discretization methods, the application of the Runge-Kutta and an extended version of the Lax-Wendroff scheme is much easier.

Study on Stress Sensitivity of Longmaxi Formation Shales in East Sichuan

Depletion development is the main way of shale gas reservoir development. The stress sensitivity of shale will have made a great impact on the correct evaluation of shale gas productivity. At the time that the shale gas reservoir in Fuling is on development, the study of stress sensitivity of shale gas reservoir gas formation, Longmaxi formation, will make a great significance to the high efficient development of shale gas reservoir in Fuling even to the shale gas development in our country. This article uses the Longmaxi formation outcrop in east Sichuan and the PDP-200 pulse decay permeameter applied for the evaluation of stress sensitivity of shale permeability. Two different plans, constant confining pressure-decreasing inner pressure test and constant internal pressure-increasing confining test, are adopted to do the permeability experiments of the same core with horizontal bedding. The results show that with the increase of effective stress affected on the shale, the permeability of shale decreases exponentially in tests, and according to decline index that decreasing process is divided into two sections. It respectively embodies the stress sensitivity of shale fracture permeability and shale matrix permeability. At the same time, the tests show permeability hysteresis when compare two tests: constant confining pressure test and constant internal pressure test. And the fracture closing pressure showed in the internal pressure test is lower than the confining pressure test result.

One-dimensional and two-dimensional Green–Naghdi equations for sloshing in shallow basins

This paper presents a verified model of weakly non-linear wave sloshing in shallow basins, based on level I Green–Naghdi (GN) mass and momentum equations derived for mild-sloped beds. The model is verified for sloshing of an initially sinusoidal free surface perturbation in a square tank with a horizontal bed. The model is also used to investigate free surface sloshing of an initial Gaussian hump in closed square basins, over horizontal and non-uniform bed topographies. Analysis of the free surface slosh motions demonstrates that the model gives predictions in satisfactory agreement with the analytical solution of linearised shallow water theory obtained by Lamb. Discrepancies between GN predictions and linear analytical solutions arise from the effect of wave non-linearities arising from the wave amplitude itself and wave–wave interactions.

Horizontal Bedding Shale Geostress Calculation Method

Background: Since the fragile anisotropy of shale, it is difficult to carry out laboratory experiments of geostress by shale cores. The existing geostress calculation model that is based on the homogeneous hypothesis also cannot meet the accuracy requirement. Therefore, it is necessary to establish the new geostress calculation model and test methods which are suitable for shale and provide the effective guidance for drilling and fracturing. Methods: Firstly, the triaxial stress experiments were carried out. It showed that the mechanical parameters had strong difference between parallel and vertical bedding direction. The characteristics of transversely isotropic were shown obviously. Then, the geostress calculation model which considers the mechanical parameters of anisotropy in different direction was established by the constitutive relation of transversely isotropic materials. Finally, it was assumed that there is no relative displacement between formations in the process of deposition and the late tectonic movement; the prediction method for the shale geostress was established by the adjacent homogeneous formation. The sensitivity factors and influence laws were analyzed for the horizontal bedding shale geostress. Results: The results showed that the shale geostress was controlled by the elastic parameters of its own and the adjacent beds’. Conclusion: The research can provide the theoretical basis and easy way for calculating the shale geosterss.

Supine posture affects cortical plasticity in elderly but not young women during a word learning-recognition task

The present research investigated the hypothesis that elderly and horizontal body position contribute to impair learning capacity. To this aim, 30 young (mean age: 23.2 years) and 20 elderly women (mean age: 82.8 years) were split in two equal groups, one assigned to the Seated Position (SP), and the other to the horizontal Bed Rest position (hBR). In the Learning Phase, participants were shown 60 words randomly distributed, and in the subsequent Recognition Phase they had to recognize them mixed with a sample of 60 new words. Behavioral analyses showed age-group effects, with young women exhibiting faster response times and higher accuracy rates than elderly women, but no interaction of body position with age group was found. Analysis of the RP component (250–270ms) revealed greater negativity in the left Occipital gyrus/Cuneus of both sitting age-groups, but significantly left-lateralized RP in left Lingual gyrus only in young bedridden women. Elderly hBR women showed a lack of left RP lateralization, the main generator being located in the right Cuneus. Young participants had the typical old/new effect (450–800ms) in different portions of left Frontal gyri/Uncus, whereas elderly women showed no differences in stimulus processing and its location. EEG alpha activity analyzed during a 3min resting state, soon after the recognition task, revealed greater alpha amplitude (i.e., cortical inhibition) in posterior sites of hBR elderly women, a result in line with their inhibited posterior RP. In elderly women the left asymmetry of RP was positively correlated with both greater accuracy and faster responses, thus pointing to a dysfunctional role, rather than a compensatory shift, of the observed right RP asymmetry in this group. This finding may have important clinical implications, with particular regard to the long-term side-effects of forced Bed Rest on elderly patients.

Simulation and interpretation of sonic waveforms in high-angle and horizontal wells

We have developed a new method to process and interpret sonic waveforms acquired in high-angle (HA) and horizontal (HZ) wells in the vicinity of layer boundaries. Numerical simulations are examined for HA/HZ fluid-filled borehole models, in which sonic tools with monopole and dipole sources operate across a horizontal bed boundary in hard and soft formations. Simulations are performed with a 3D time-domain finite-difference method assuming a sonic logging tool, in which each receiver station consists of eight azimuthal receivers. Instead of conventional processing for monopole and dipole waveforms, which takes the average and difference, respectively, of waveforms acquired with azimuthal receivers, we analyze the waveforms acquired individually by each azimuthal receiver. For dipole sources, we refer to the dispersive signals recorded by individual receivers as pseudo-flexural waves, and we first process them with a weighted spectral semblance method to obtain the frequency dispersion curves. We then apply a correction to the dispersion curves of receivers with specific azimuths to estimate the formation shear slowness. Close to a horizontal bed boundary, we select two azimuths: One of them is the azimuth with the corresponding receiver positioned within the top layer and having minimal sensitivity to the bottom formation. The second azimuth is such that the corresponding receiver is positioned within the bottom formation and has minimal sensitivity to the top formation. Simulations show that the presence of a bed boundary significantly alters the propagation of P-, S-, and flexural waves. Rather than by borehole guided waves, in HA wells, receiver signals generated with a monopole source are mostly influenced by converted P-P and S-S waves induced by the bed boundary. Apparent slownesses of these converted waves are determined by their direction of propagation and the corresponding true formation slowness. Also, values of apparent slownesses are consistently lower than the true formation slownesses. In soft formations, borehole guided pseudo-flexural waves generated by a vertical dipole source show good azimuthal resolution for the HA and HZ wells. Processing the pseudo-flexural waveforms separately for the top and bottom receivers yields unbiased shear slownesses for formations above and below the well, respectively. This procedure enables the accurate evaluation of formation heterogeneity due to the bed-boundary effects.

Heterogeneous fluid flow in fractured layered carbonates and its implication for generation of incipient karst

We use numerical models to investigate fluid flow in layered fractured carbonate rocks, and specifically to investigate the effects of the structural and hydraulic properties of both joints and bedding planes on flow localization. Synthetic fracture networks made up of two jointed layers separated by a horizontal bedding plane are generated to represent the typical layered fracture systems often formed in carbonate rocks. A uniform aperture field is assumed for each joint set and for the bedding plane, but different joint sets and the bedding plane can have non-identical values. The aperture ratio of the joint sets to the bedding plane is found to dominate the behaviour of flow heterogeneity on the bedding plane. Three distinct flow regimes, i.e. joint-dominated, transitional and bedding plane-dominated, are recognized. The magnitude of the aperture ratio controls which flow regime develops. We further suggest that the different flow regimes may be responsible for the initiation of different types of incipient karst morphologies observed in nature: pipe karst, stripe karst and sheet karst.

Hydrodynamics of Flow Obstructed by Inline and Eccentrically-Arranged Circular Piers on a Horizontal Bed Surface

An attempt has been made to study and analyse the hydrodynamic effects of turbulent flow including its pattern and characteristics around three identical circular shaped piers. Experimentation was conducted under clear-water scour condition. Three pier groups were placed with inline and eccentric arrangement in tandem manner on a flume. Two piers were positioned inline along the flow direction and third pier was placed eccentrically in the middle of two inline piers having a transverse distance equal to three times of pier width. Three dimensional velocities were gauged at a horizontal plane located at 4% depth above the zero bed level. The readings were captured in the Cartesian coordinate-system to compute the time-mean longitudinal, transversal and vertical velocities. The hydrodynamic consequences of three piers arrangement near the horizontal bed were investigated. The contour profile and variations of time aggregated mean velocity components, kinetic energy and turbulence intensities are measured or determined and analysed. Velocity vectors and absolute velocity at horizontal plane obtained from velocity measuring areas are utilised to explain further hydrodynamic flow features. The measured depth for scour at equilibrium state for the eccentric middle pier is observed higher than the inline front and inline rear circular piers. The three pier group positioning and the interfering between the circular piers act an important function in flow characteristics and for creating and forming the larger scoured depth around the eccentric middle pier.

A volume-of-fluid (VOF) interface-sharpening method for two-phase incompressible flows

Abstract A three-dimensional volume-of-fluid (VOF) interface-sharpening method is developed on the general curvilinear grid for two-phase incompressible flows. In this method, a VOF discretization scheme is formulated for the advection of a two-fluid interface. To maintain interface sharpness, a treatment is applied by solving an interface-sharpening equation after each advection time step, thereby reducing the numerical diffusion error in the solution of the discretization scheme. To demonstrate the accuracy and capability of the advection scheme, several numerical experiments involving three benchmark tests of pure advection were conducted. The results show that the method can realize a sharp interface reliably and efficiently, and reasonable mass conservation is obtained. For the flow field of viscous incompressible flows, the Navier–Stokes equations are solved by adopting the dual-time preconditioning method. A fully implicit method with a highly efficient lower-upper symmetrical Gauss–Seidel (LU-SGS) algorithm based on a dual-time stepping technique as a sub-iteration scheme is employed to advance the solution in time. To validate the proposed method for computing incompressible free surface flows, a dam-break flow over a dry horizontal bed and the water entry of a hemisphere with one degree of freedom are simulated. Comparisons of the predicted results with the available experimental data are presented herein.

Neoproterozoic backarc basin on the southeastern margin of the Yangtze block during Rodinia assembly: New evidence from provenance of detrital zircons and geochemistry of mafic rocks

Several tectonic models have been proposed for the Neoproterozoic amalgamation of the South China block during the assembly of Rodinia. However, the timing of the end of arc magmatism between the two subblocks in the South China block (i.e., the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks) remains controversial because it is unclear whether the 860−820 Ma magmatic rocks and coeval sedimentary basins in this area are related to subduction or plume activity. Here, we present new detrital zircon U-Pb and Hf isotopic data for the sediments directly overlying early Neoproterozoic arc volcanic rocks in this region. These data reveal a rhythmic change in source coincident with a progressive increase in the amount of juvenile and old crustal detritus within these sediments. This result, combined with the presence of a fining-upward grain-size trend and horizontal bedding within these sediments, provides evidence of bidirectional sources that are consistent with a backarc setting. The juvenile crustal material within these sediments was sourced from adjacent arc terranes to the east, whereas the old crustal detritus was derived from the Yangtze block to the west. In addition, sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe zircon U-Pb dating of mafic rocks within equivalent sedimentary sequences yielded ages of ca. 860−840 Ma, and these mafic rocks have arc- or mid-ocean-ridge basalt−like geochemical features that indicate the initiation of backarc spreading associated with Neoproterozoic NW-directed subduction. The data from the sediments and mafic rocks suggest the presence of a backarc basin system at ca. 860−820 Ma within the southeastern margin of the Yangtze block. This in turn indicates that Rodinia assembly was not completed until ca. 820 Ma, with the South China block possibly acting as a connection between a Neoproterozoic Andean-type active continental margin and Grenvillian belts on the paleo−western margin of the Rodinia supercontinent.

A general relation for standing normal jumps in both hydraulic and dry granular flows

Steady free-surface flows can produce sudden changes in height and velocity, namely standing jumps, which demarcate supercritical from subcritical flows. Standing jumps have traditionally been observed and studied experimentally with water in order to mimic various hydraulic configurations, for instance in the vicinity of energy dissipators. More recently, some studies have emerged that investigate standing jumps formed in flows of dry granular materials, which are relevant to the design of protection dams against avalanches. In the present paper, we present a new explicit relation for the prediction of the height of standing jumps. We demonstrate the robustness of the new relation proposed by revisiting and cross-comparing a great number of data sets on standing jumps formed in water flows on horizontal and inclined smooth beds, in water flows on horizontal rough beds, and in flows of dry granular materials down smooth inclines. Our study reveals the limits of the traditional one-to-one relation between the sequent depth ratio of the jump and the Froude number of the incoming supercritical flow, namely the Bélanger equation. The latter is a Rankine–Hugoniot relation which does not take into account the gravitational and frictional forces acting within the jump volume, over the jump length, as well as the possible density change across the jump when the incoming fluid is compressible. The newly proposed relation, which is exact for grains and a reasonable approximation for water, can solve all of these issues. However, this relation can predict the height of the standing jump only if another length scale, namely the length of the jump, is known. We conclude our study by discussing empirical but simple closure relations to get a reasonable estimate of the jump length for water flows and dry granular flows. These closure relations can be used to feed the general jump relation and then predict with accuracy the heights of the jumps in a number of situations, provided that well-calibrated friction laws – described in the present study – are considered.

Venting of turbidity currents approaching a rectangular opening on a horizontal bed

ABSTRACTReservoir sedimentation is a worldwide problem hampering the sustainable use of reservoirs and the sediment balance of impacted rivers. Various techniques are applied for sediment mitigation. However, as turbidity currents are a major source of sediments in reservoirs, venting them through outlets reduces sedimentation. The sediment release efficiency associated with venting turbidity currents on a horizontal bed is experimentally investigated in this paper. The outflow discharge and duration of venting are the main parameters assessed. Venting efficiency is studied based on two different concepts: (1) a global venting efficiency comparing inflow and outflow sediment fluxes during the total venting operation and (2) a local venting efficiency comparing masses starting at the arrival of the turbidity current to the outlet and taking into account deposited sediment masses. An efficiency indicator accounting for water losses is also introduced. Results can be used to improve the efficiency of venting by employing adequate outlet discharges.