Hop Node Research Articles

Research on 3D Wireless Sensor Networks ISC-EAR Routing Algorithm

In order to improve the performance of 3D wireless sensor networks, an Iterative Split Clustering Energy Angle Routing (ISC-EAR) Algorithm is proposed. The design idea is discussed theoretically, and the design idea is as follows: on the basis of the link bandwidth and other meeting user QoS requirements, all nodes within the node perception radius or communication radius are regarded as next hop candidates. Select the next hop node according to the total energy consumption of the node (including sending and receiving energy consumption), and try to ensure that the farthest transmission distance consumes the least energy. Select the current node, the destination node and the next hop node, the space vector with the current node as the vertex has the smallest angle, that is, the candidate node closest to the destination node as the next hop node. In order to verify the performance of the algorithm, use C/C++ for programming simulation. Through three different topological structures of mine topology, average topology and random topology, the performance evaluation is carried out using four indicators: the number of alive nodes, network lifetime, network energy consumption and average energy of node. Through simulation calculation, the ISC-EAR routing algorithm has good technical performance advantages compared with the benchmark routing algorithm IGreedy, which can increase the survival time of nodes, reduce network energy consumption, and prolong the survival time of the network. It has better advancement.

A Two-Hop Real-Time LoRa Protocol for Industrial Monitoring and Control Systems

A single-hop LoRa ( Lo ng Ra nge) network suffers from a limitation in coverage caused by high signal attenuation when deployed in industrial areas, which often include wireless unfriendly zones (WUZs). Thus, some end nodes in WUZs may fail to transmit data to the gateway (GW). This paper proposes a reliable two-hop real-time LoRa protocol in which the nodes in WUZs transmit data to another node that relays the received data to the gateway for reliable transmission. The proposed protocol allocates transmission slots to nodes with different data transmission periods, so the nodes not only achieve high reliability but also meet time constraints or periods for delivering data to a gateway. In this case, 1-hop nodes (one hop away from GW) may consume more energy than 2-hop nodes (two hops away from GW). For energy balancing, the protocol uses a data aggregation approach to minimize the number of transmissions. We show by analysis that the proposed protocol can support up to 200 nodes using a single-channel GW when every node sends one packet with a payload of 30 bytes within 17 seconds, and 30% of the nodes are 2-hop nodes. In addition, we show by experiment that the proposed protocol can achieve high reliability in data transmission.

An algorithm for determining data forwarding strategy based on recommended trust value in MANET

In mobile ad hoc networks (MANET) with selfish nodes and malicious nodes, the network performance is seriously affected. We propose an algorithm based on the recommended trust value, i.e., collaborative computing trust model (CCTM) algorithm, to decide the data forwarding strategy. In the algorithm, the carrier node carrying the message collects recommended data of neighbour nodes adopts K-nearest neighbour (KNN) algorithm principle to filter the false recommended data and select K neighbour nodes as collaborative computing nodes to calculate the recommended trust value of neighbour nodes respectively, and then selects the neighbour node with the highest recommended trust value as the next hop node. The simulation experiments show that when the selfish and malicious nodes number is 10, CCTM is higher than Epidemic algorithm and MDT about 3% and 8% respectively in terms of transmission success rate; CCTM is higher than Epidemic about 14% and lower than MDT about 15% in terms of average transmission delay; CCTM is lower than MDT about 3% in terms of routing overhead. Overall, CCTM algorithm not only has better performance in terms of transmission success rate, delay and routing overhead, but also improves the security of data transmission.

MDRP: An Energy-Efficient Multi-Disjoint Routing protocol in WSNs for Smart Grids

Abstract Rapid increase in sensor electronics has expanded the call for sensor networks in IoT-based devices. Smart grid is a part of IoT framework, which can be used to screen and manage traffic congestion, electricity influxes, extreme weather, and so on. This is done through a network of transmission lines, smart sensors, and smart meters. It is required to distribute and accumulate information remotely on timely basis from different stages of the grid. The periodic data from the smart meters are transferred to MDMS through WSN’s. In WSN’s, depletion of energy due to unequal load on the sensors is a serious issue, which is to be addressed as it affects the operations of the entire network. To assist these traffic requirements and to boost the network lifetime, asynchronous work sleep cycle approach can be used to create node connections. In this article, an energy-efficient adaptive fuzzy-based multi-disjoint routing protocol in WSN’s for smart grids abbreviated as (MDRP) is proposed, where the next hop node is decided through fuzzy logic. Once the subsequent node is decided, a spanning tree is constructed with the sink node as its root, which calculates the optimal path cost, to transmit the collected data. Furthermore, the simulation results show that the proposed MDRP performs better in terms of network lifetime, packet delivery ratio, total energy consumption, etc.

Energy-efficient Load-balanced RPL routing protocol for Internet of Things (IoTs) Networks

This article proposed energy-efficient load-balanced RPL (EL-RPL) routing protocol for IoTs networks. In this protocol, a parent selection algorithm is proposed. It selects parent in parent list to be the next hop node toward destination node in networks based on an objective function that combines between the highest remaining energy and the total number of received packets by the parent. This can balance the load on all parents in the parents' list. Besides, the EL-RPL protocol improves DODAG construction by preventing DIO packets transmission to the nodes with the lower ranks. This will lead to save energy and hence enhance the networks' lifetime. Many experiments were performed using the OMNeT++ network simulator to evaluate the efficiency of EL-RPL routing protocol. In comparison with some existing protocol, the results ensure that the proposed EL-RPL protocol can efficiently save energy, decrease the control packets and improve the lifetime of the IoTs networks.

An Enhanced Distance Vector-Hop Algorithm using New Weighted Location Method for Wireless Sensor Networks

Location is an indispensable segment for Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), since when events happened, we need to know location. The distance vector-hop (DV-Hop) technique is a popular range-free localization algorithm due to its cost efficiency and non-intricate process. Nevertheless, it suffers from poor accuracy, and it is highly influenced by network topology; Especially, more hop counts lead to more errors. In the final phase, least squares are employed to address nonlinear equation, which will gain greater location errors. Aimed at addressing problems mentioned above, an enhanced DV-Hop algorithm based on weighted factor, along with new weighted least squares location technique, is proposed in this paper, and it is called WND-DV-Hop. First, the one hop count of unknown node was corrected by employed received signal strength indication (RSSI) technology. Next, in order to reduce average hop distance error, a weighted coefficient based on beacon node hop count was constructed. A new weighted least squares method was embedded to solve nonlinear equation problem. Finally, considerable experiments were carried out to estimate the performance of WND-DV-Hop, compared the outcomes with state-of-the-art DV-Hop, IDV-Hop, Checkout-DV-Hop, and New-DV-Hop depicted in literature. The empirical findings demonstrated that WND-DV-Hop significantly outperformed other localization algorithms.

An Energy Balance Clustering Routing Protocol for Intra-Body Wireless Nanosensor Networks.

Wireless NanoSensor Networks (WNSNs) are a new type of network that combines nanotechnology and sensor networks. Because WNSNs have great application prospects in intra-body health monitoring, biomedicine and damage detection, intra-body Wireless NanoSensor Networks (iWNSNs) have become a new research hotspot. An energy balance clustering routing protocol (EBCR) is proposed for the intra-body nanosensor nodes with low computing and processing capabilities, short communication range and limited energy storage. The protocol reduces the communication load of nano-nodes by adopting a new hierarchical clustering method. The nano-nodes in the cluster can transmit data directly to the cluster head nodes by one-hop, and the cluster head nodes can transmit data to the nano control node by multi-hop routing among themselves. Furthermore, there is a tradeoff between distance and channel capacity when choosing the next hop node in order to reduce energy consumption while ensuring successful data packet transmission. The simulation results show that the protocol has great advantages in balancing energy consumption, prolonging network lifetime and ensuring data packet transmission success rate. It can be seen that EBCR protocol can be used as an effective routing scheme for iWNSNs.

Fuzzy Logic-Based Directional Location Routing in Vehicular Ad Hoc Network

The vehicular ad hoc network (VANET) is an autonomous system of mobile vehicles where mobile vehicles can transmit or receive data packet over the wireless link. Due to the movable nature and limited communication, range of vehicles causes breaking the link between them very frequently, which in turn causes failure in the data delivery. Therefore, a stable path should be established from the source to the destination node to deliver data packets at the intended destination node. Therefore, for a stable route from source to the destination node selection of the next hop should be appropriate. The proposed work in this paper has been made to discuss how the best next hop node can be selected to deliver data packet successfully at the destination node D. A mathematical model fuzzy logic-based directional location routing (FLDLR) has been proposed to select a remarkable next hop node in the VANET. To select next hop, FLDLR has considered fuzzy logic sets of the routing metrics, i.e., next hop distance, node speed, closeness, the data transmission rate of the node, and node movement direction. To investigate the performance of FLDLR, the simulation work has been done through network simulator-2 and compared with existing LAR and D-LAR protocols. Through simulated results has shown that the FLDLR outperforms existing protocols from the standpoints routing overhead and packet delivery delay.

Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks Node Localization Based on Compressive Sensing in Water Hydrology.

Groundwater is an important source of human activities, agriculture and industry. Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks (UASNs) is one of the important technologies for marine environmental monitoring. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the node self- localization technology of underwater acoustic sensor network. This paper mainly studies the node localization algorithm based on range-free. In order to save cost and energy consumption, only a small number of sensing nodes in sensor networks usually know their own location. How to locate all nodes accurately through these few nodes is the focus of our research. In this paper, combined with the compressive sensing algorithm, a range-free node localization algorithm based on node hop information is proposed. Aiming at the problem that connection information collected by the algorithm is an integer, the hop is modified to further improve the localization performance. The simulation analysis shows that the improved algorithm is effective to improve the localization accuracy without additional cost and energy consumption compared with the traditional method.

An Energy-Efficient Routing Protocol for Reliable Data Transmission in Wireless Body Area Networks.

Wireless body area networks will inevitably bring tremendous convenience to human society in future development, and also enable people to benefit from ubiquitous technological services. However, one of the reasons hindering development is the limited energy of the network nodes. Therefore, the energy consumption in the selection of the next hop must be minimized in multi-hop routing. To solve this problem, this paper proposes an energy efficient routing protocol for reliable data transmission in a wireless body area network. The protocol takes multiple parameters of the network node into account, such as residual energy, transmission efficiency, available bandwidth, and the number of hops to the sink. We construct the maximum benefit function to select the next hop node by normalizing the node parameters, and dynamically select the node with the largest function value as the next hop node. Based on the above work, the proposed method can achieve efficient multi-hop routing transmission of data and improve the reliability of network data transmission. Compared with the priority-based energy-efficient routing algorithm (PERA) and modified new-attempt routing protocol (NEW-ATTEMPT), the simulation results show that the proposed routing protocol uses the maximum benefit function to select the next hop node dynamically, which not only improves the reliability of data transmission, but also significantly improves the energy utilization efficiency of the node and prolongs the network lifetime.

A Contention-Based Hop-By-Hop Bidirectional Congestion Control Algorithm for Ad-Hoc Networks.

Existing hop-by-hop congestion control algorithms are mainly divided into two categories: those improving the sending rate and those suppressing the receiving rate. However, these congestion control algorithms have problems with validity and limitations. It is likely that the network will be paralyzed due to the unreasonable method of mitigating congestion. In this paper, we present a contention-based hop-by-hop bidirectional congestion control algorithm (HBCC). This algorithm uses the congestion detection method with queue length as a parameter. By detecting the queue length of the current node and the next hop node, the congestion conditions can be divided into the following four categories: 0–0, 0–1, 1–0, 1–1 (0 means no congestion, 1 means congestion). When at least one of the two nodes is congested, the HBCC algorithm adaptively adjusts the contention window of the current node, which can change the priority of the current node to access the channel. In this way, the buffer queue length of the congested node is reduced. When the congestion condition is 1–1, the hop-by-hop priority congestion control (HPCC) method proposed in this paper is used. This algorithm adaptively changes the adjustment degree of the current node competition window and improves the priority of congestion processing of the next hop node. The NS2 simulation shows that by using the HBCC algorithm, when compared with distributed coordination function (DCF) without congestion control, the proposed unidirectional congestion control algorithms hop-by-hop receiving-based congestion control (HRCC) and hop-by-hop sending-based congestion control (HSCC), and the existing congestion control algorithm congestion alleviation—MAC (CA-MAC), the average saturation throughput increased by approximately 90%, 62%, 12%, and 62%, respectively, and the buffer overflow loss ratio reduced by approximately 80%, 79%, 44%, and 79%.

Ant-based efficient energy and balanced load routing approach for optimal path convergence in MANET

Ant colony optimization, a swarm intelligence technique, inspired by the foraging behavior of ants in colonies was used in the past research works to compute the optimal path. The existing works of routing using ant colony optimization of MANETS face challenges in load balancing and energy efficiency. The proposed A-EEBLR approach chooses the next hop node based on metrics like delay, energy drain rate, congestion, link quality. Based on these metrics the probability of choosing next hop node as neighbor node is determined. The next hop probability determines the forward and backward ant agents to establish multiple paths among which the most optimal path is selected for transmission. The implementation results shows that the proposed A-EEBLR approach outperforms the existing A-ESR approach when evaluated by varying the number of packets, number of nodes and node mobility.

Autonomous Navigation Control of UAV Using Wireless Smart Meter Devices

In preparation for the upcoming home delivery services that rely on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), we developed a new multi-hop radio network that is laid over a smart meter network transferring electric energy information only. In this network, a UAV follows, for navigation purposes, the topology of a virtual network overlaid on the physical smart meter network. We established a service management control method which does not rely on image analysis or map information processing, i.e. processes that consume precious power resources of the UAV. Instead, navigation is based on the routing technology. The current distance between the UAV and a node of the smart meter network is measured by means of the radio transmission loss value, therefore determining the position of the UAV. A two-layer network model has been proposed. One layer consists of a network of nodes in a residential area with scattered buildings – a location that is safer to navigate – while the other is an access network of nodes in a densely populated area. Then, we proposed methods to determine the direction of movement towards the next hop node on the data-link layer and the end node on the network layer, which is the target destination. We implemented a software-based test system and verified the effectiveness of the proposed methods.

Pipeline slot based fast rerouting scheme for delay optimization in duty cycle based M2M communications

In recent years, with the development of networked Cyber-Physical Systems (CPSs), wireless sensor networks (WSNs), as an important carrier of CPSs, has been applied more and more. In WSNs, many applications require low delay and high reliability for routing the sensing data to sink. Due to the lossy nature of wireless channels, rerouting schemes are often applied to ensure reliable data collection for mission-critical applications. However, rerouting together with multi-hop routing in duty cycle base WSNs will make designing a low delay routing scheme a challenge issue. In this paper, a Pipeline Slot based Fast Rerouting (PSFR) Scheme is proposed to reduce delay in duty cycle based WSNs. The main innovation points of PSFR scheme are as follows: (a) In duty cycle based WSNs, the major delay is caused by the sleep delay when nodes in the route forwarding to next hop node. Therefore, in PSFR scheme, we add a sequential active (SA) slot at the next hop node which is active at the next slot of the active slot of the previous node, which enables the previous node to forward packets to the next hop node in the slot right after receiving packet in active slot and greatly reduces sleep delay. (b) The second, in PSFR scheme, the backup path is designed beforehand in a less stringent pipeline active slot, so the packet can reach the sink with a relatively low delay when rerouting. (c) More importantly, in PSFR scheme, the added SA slots use the residual energy of peripheral nodes, which means they reduce the routing delay without decreasing network lifetime. After sufficient theoretical analysis and experiment, results show that the PSFR scheme can reduce the delay by more than 58.215% in the experiment networks without reducing the network lifetime, and the PSFR scheme can improve the energy utilization of network by more than 27.66%.

Energy Consumption Balanced Topology Variable Routing Algorithm for WWSN in Disaster Rescue Scenarios

In recent years, the Wearable Wireless Sensor Network (WWSN) has become one of the most popular networks used in disaster and emergency scenarios. We propose a routing algorithm named Energy Consumption Balanced Topology Variable (ECB-TV) on the body of users in WWSN. In the ECB-TV algorithm, network topology can be variable according to the change of network state. A multi-hop topology is used in normal situation and the network will switch to single-hop topology at once when an abnormal event happens. We also design a novel multi-hop routing algorithm for multi-hop topology where we select the node with the highest energy balance factor as next hop node. Energy balance factor is innovatively designed by simultaneously taking into account both energy consumption of transmitting and receiving nodes, which can balance the energy consumption of sensor nodes well. The simulation results show that the proposed ECB-TV algorithm has better performance in terms of lifetime in normal situations and delay in abnormal situations.

Global and Local Reliability-Based Routing Protocol for Wireless Sensor Networks

In wireless sensor networks, the node reliability can affect the reliability of data transmission. To analyze the node reliability, this paper defines both betweenness centrality and dependency degree for a node to reflect its global reliability and local reliability, respectively. Based on the above definition, a global and local reliability-based routing (GLRR) protocol is proposed to guarantee the reliability of data transmission between a source and destination node in network. In GLRR, at first, some nodes, usually with greater betweenness centrality among their neighbors in a limited range, will be selected as the backtracking node. Moreover, all backtracking nodes then construct their backtracking paths from themselves to the source node separately, and each node on a backtracking path should calculate the dependency degree on its previous hop node. All the betweenness centrality and dependency degree will be forwarded to the source node along the backtracking paths, and be combined to design the routing metric, based on which, the source node can calculate an optimal backtracking path to forward packets to the corresponding backtracking node, meanwhile, this backtracking node will act as a new source node to launch another routing process until the packets be forwarded to the destination node. At last, the simulation results demonstrate that the proposed protocol is superior to the classical algorithms in terms of the network reliability and the network efficiency.

Low latency and energy efficient cluster based routing design for wireless sensor network

<span>Wireless sensor network (WSN) has attained wide adoption across various sectors and is considered to be key component of future real-time application such as BigData, Internet of things (IoT) etc. The modern application requires low latency and scalable real-time data access considering heterogeneous network. However, provisioning low latency real-time data access incurs energy overhead among sensor device. Clustering technique aided in providing scalability and minimizing energy consumption among sensor device. However, it incurs energy overhead among cluster head and sensor device closer to sink. To address, many optimization technique is been presented in recent time for optimal cluster selection. However, these technique are designed considering homogenous network. To address, this work presented Low Latency and Energy Efficient Routing (LLEER) design for heterogeneous WSN. The LLEER adopts multi-objective function such as</span><span>connectivity, connection time, radio signal strength, coverage time, and network traffic for cluster head and hop node selection. Experiment are conducted to evaluate LLEER design shows significant performance improvement over state-of-art model in terms of network lifetime considering total node death, first node death, and loss of connectivity, communication overhead, and packet transmission latency. Proposed LLEER brings a good trade-off between energy efficiency, and latency requirement of future real-time application.<span> </span></span>

Adaptive Fuzzy-Based Energy and Delay-Aware Routing Protocol for a Heterogeneous Sensor Network

In a heterogeneous sensor actor network, packet loss may occur due to bad link quality, overflow of buffer, and low energy levels. Retransmission of the lost packets leads to more energy consumption and delay. Ensuring data reliability and minimum delay requirement while improving energy efficiency are challenging issues in a resource-constrained heterogeneous sensor actor network. In this paper, a fuzzy-based delay and energy-aware intelligent routing mechanism has been proposed to select efficient routes. In the proposed mechanism, routing decisions are taken using a fuzzy logic system by considering network resources, such as residual energy, quality of link, available buffer size, and distance (proximity). In a network, a node with higher residual energy, higher free available buffer, good link quality, and close distance (proximity) gets opportunity to become a next hop node in a routing path. Furthermore, network performance has been analyzed with various network states. Simulation has been carried out using Network Simulator 3 by considering performance metrics, such as delay, number of retransmissions, energy consumption, lifetime, and network stability of the network.

Channel-Aware Energy-Efficient Two-Hop Cooperative Routing Protocol for Underwater Acoustic Sensor Networks

This paper sought to investigate the performance of multi-hop underwater acoustic sensor networks (UW-ASNs) when they deploy cooperative routing algorithms combining the cooperative communication and routing methods. Taking into account energy efficiency, the studied schemes are discriminated by different policies of selecting next hop nodes as well as relay nodes of one-hop cooperative communications such that the transmission energy of routing paths is minimized. In order to take full advantage of broadcast nature in wireless communication, we propose to use a node exploited as a joint relay for two-hop cooperative communication. In addition, the unreliable communication of acoustic channels is addressed by the incorporated channel-aware mechanism which updates the links by exploiting packet receptions. On the bases of communication, two cooperative routing protocols are developed. The simulation results show that the network employing the proposed schemes achieves improved performance in terms of energy efficiency, throughput, and end-to-end delay as compared to the related works.

TLS: traffic load based scheduling protocol for wireless sensor networks

In wireless sensor networks (WSNs), nodes are usually deployed in the monitoring region randomly and densely and are supposed to monitor the region for a longer duration. These sensors are normally powered by a battery and therefore it is essential to regulate the power utilisation of the nodes efficiently. Although most of the current protocols reduce the power utilisation by regulating the sleep and wake-up schedules, they fail to make an adaptive sleep or wake up schedule for the nodes based on their traffic load. This paper proposes a traffic load based adaptive node scheduling protocol to determine the active and sleep schedules of the nodes. The entire network is partitioned into a set of virtual zones and a routing path selection algorithm is proposed considering the residual power of the next hop nodes. Simulation results show that the energy consumption and packet overhead of our protocol are considerably less as compared to similar quorum-based medium access control (MAC) protocols.