Honey Bee Species Research Articles

A Survey of Common Pathogens of Apis spp. in Wild Non-Cave Honeybees in Southwest China.

Honeybees are crucial pollinators with significant ecologic value. The decline of wild honeybee populations has been recognized and documented during recent decades. However, the health status of wild non-cave Apis spp., including giant and dwarf honeybees, remains generally unknown. We investigated eight common viruses and five bacterial or fungal pathogens in four wild non-cave honeybee species at 11 locations in Southwest China. As a result, Melissococcus plutonius, the pathogenic agent of European foulbrood, was detected in all the species, and the sequences were identical to the pathogen in managed cave honeybees. Only one virus, black queen cell virus (BQCV), was positive in one dwarf species, Apis florea, in our study. The positive BQCV infected three A. florea colonies in Guangxi Province, with distinct sequences from this virus reported in cave honeybees or in the same host in the nearby Yunnan Province. Although our results indicated a low pathogenic level of common diseases in the wild non-cave Apis spp. in Southwest China, the conservation of these wild pollinators is of importance in light of the noticeable decline in populations and the irreplaceable position of pollination.

Variation in Flowering Behaviour and Honey Bee Visitation on Eucalyptus Clones

With the adoption of clonal forestry by the farmers on large tracts in north-western India, the reports of negligible flowering in Eucalyptus clonal plantations need to be analysed. This study reports the results from the experimental trial involving 14 clones replicated thrice in randomized block design with plot size of 5 trees. Floral buds appeared from June and continued up to July. Profuse flowering was recorded only on three clones i.e., PE-7, PE-8 and PE-9. On the other hand, no floral buds could be seen on C-72, C-413, PE-12 and PE-14. All the four honey bee species i.e., Apis mellifera L. (Italian honey bee), A. dorsata F. (rock bee), A. cerana indica F. (Indian honey bee) and A. florea (little bee) visited the flowers. The frequency of their visit was maximum (7.3/ 2 min) during the afternoon (1 pm) and the lowest (4.9) in the evening. The maximum honey bee visitation was observed on clone PE-9.

The pathological effects of a Nosema ceranae infection in the giant honey bee, Apis dorsata Fabricius, 1793

Nosema ceranae is an intracellular microsporidian pathogen that lives in the midgut ventricular cells of all known honey bee Apis species. We suspect that N. ceranae may also cause energetic stress in the giant honey bee because this parasite is known to disrupt nutrient absorption resulting in energetic stress in the honey bee species Apis mellifera. To understand how N. ceranae impacts the energetic stress of the giant honey bee, A. dorsata, we measured the hemolymph trehalose levels of experimentally infected giant honey bees on days three, five, seven, and fourteen post infection (p.i.). We also measured the hypopharyngeal gland protein content, the total midgut proteolytic enzyme activity, honey bee survival, infection ratio, and spore loads comparing infected and uninfected honey bees across the same time frame. Nosema ceranae-infected honey bees had significantly lowered survival, trehalose levels, hypopharyngeal gland protein content, and midgut proteolytic enzyme activity. We found an increasing level of parasitic loads and infection ratio of N. ceranae-infected bees after inoculation. Collectively, our results suggest that the giant honey bee suffers from energetic stress and limited nutrient absorption from a N. ceranae infection, which results in lowered survival in comparison to uninfected honey bees. Our findings highlight that other honey bee species besides A. mellifera are susceptible to microsporidian pathogens that they harbor, which results in negative effects on health and survival. Therefore, these pathogens might be transmitted at a community level, in the natural environment, resulting in negative health effects of multiple honey bee species.

Experimental Nosema ceranae infection is associated with microbiome changes in the midguts of four species of Apis (honey bees)

Nosema ceranae is a unicellular microsporidian causing ventricular cell lysis in host Apis species. We hypothesized that the gut microbiota of honey bees, A. cerana, A. dorsata, A. florea, and A. mellifera, is disrupted by N. ceranae infection. Correspondingly, we investigated the impact of N. ceranae infection on gut populations of Bifidobacterium sp. and Apilactobacillus kunkeei in the selected Apis species. The bacteria populations were compared using a culture-dependent method and employing 16S rRNA gene sequencing between bees infected with 2.0 × 105 N. ceranae spores and those remaining uninfected. The number of N. ceranae spores per bee and the ratio of infected gut cells to uninfected cells were measured at five and ten days post infection (p.i.). N. ceranae spore load at ten days p.i. was significantly greater than at five days p.i. and was varied with species’ body size. For each of the four Apis species, N. ceranae treated bees had lower survival than did the control bees. Moreover, A. florae had the largest infection ratio of all the species. Across all Apis species, N. ceranae infected individuals had significantly lower mean numbers of Bifidobacterium sp. and A. kunkeei than did uninfected ones. Among infected bees, the average number of both bacteria was significantly greatest in A. dorsata and lowest in A. cerana. Overall, N. ceranae infection was associated with histopathological damage and also with lower populations of Bifidobacterium sp. and A. kunkeei in the midguts of the tested honey bee species.

Apis andreniformis associated Actinomycetes show antimicrobial activity against black rot pathogen (Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris).

This study aimed to investigate cultivable actinomycetes associated with rare honey bee species in Thailand and their antagonistic activity against plant pathogenic bacteria. Actinomycetes were selectively isolated from the black dwarf honey bee (Apis andreniformis). A total of 64 actinomycete isolates were obtained with Streptomyces as the predominant genus (84.4%) followed by Micromonospora (7.8%), Nonomuraea (4.7%) and Actinomadura (3.1%). All isolates were screened for antimicrobial activity against Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris, Pectobacterium carotovorum and Pseudomonas syringae pv. sesame. Three isolates inhibited the growth of X. campestris pv. campestris during in vitro screening. The crude extracts of two isolates (ASC3-2 and ASC5-7P) had a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 128 mg L−1against X. campestris pv. campestris. For isolate ACZ2-27, its crude extract showed stronger inhibitory effect with a lower MIC value of 64 mg L−1 against X. campestris pv. campestris. These three active isolates were identified as members of the genus Streptomyces based on their 16S rRNA gene sequences. Phylogenetic analysis based on the maximum likelihood algorithm showed that isolate ACZ2-27, ASC3-2 and ASC5-7P were closely related to Streptomyces misionensis NBRC 13063T (99.71%), Streptomyces cacaoi subsp. cacaoi NBRC 12748T (100%) and Streptomyces puniceus NBRC 12811T (100%), respectively. In addition, representative isolates from non-Streptomyces groups were identified by 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. High similarities were found with members of the genera Actinomadura, Micromonospora and Nonomuraea. Our study provides evidence of actinomycetes associated with the black dwarf honey bee including members of rare genera. Antimicrobial potential of these insect associated Streptomyces was also demonstrated especially the antibacterial activity against phytopathogenic bacteria.

United States port interceptions and predicted climate suitability of the red dwarf honeybee, Apis florea (Hymenoptera: Apidae), with notes on its identification

We analyzed the port interceptions of the red dwarf honeybee, Apis (Micrapis) florea and undetermined species of Apis from regions where the A. florea is present. We also provide information on the potential distribution of this species globally and for the USA by using two climatic suitability models: Plant Hardiness Zones and Maxent. The results show several significant interceptions at US ports of entry in the last 10 years, including complete colonies associated with sea containers. In addition, the climatic models showed suitable areas in warmer regions of the world, and Southern and Western USA. Finally, we provide some additional notes for the diagnosis of the females and males of A. florea, including some novel characters from the gonangulum and the sting blades, both parts of the complex sting apparatus of the workers.

Genetic divergence and functional convergence of gut bacteria between the Eastern honey bee Apis cerana and the Western honey bee Apis mellifera

IntroductionThe functional relevance of intra-species diversity in natural microbial communities remains largely unexplored. The guts of two closely related honey bee species, Apis cerana and A. mellifera, are colonised by a similar set of core bacterial species composed of host-specific strains, thereby providing a good model for an intra-species diversity study. ObjectivesWe aim to assess the functional relevance of intra-species diversity of A. cerana and A. mellifera gut microbiota. MethodsHoney bee workers were collected from four regions of China. Their gut microbiomes were investigated by shotgun metagenomic sequencing, and the bacterial compositions were compared at the species level. A cross-species colonisation assay was conducted, with the gut metabolomes being characterised by LC-MS/MS. ResultsComparative analysis showed that the strain composition of the core bacterial species was host-specific. These core bacterial species presented distinctive functional profiles between the hosts. However, the overall functional profiles of the A. cerana and A. mellifera gut microbiomes were similar; this was further supported by the consistency of the honey bees’ gut metabolome, as the gut microbiota of different honey bee species showed rather similar metabolic profiles in the cross-species colonisation assay. Moreover, this experiment also demonstrated that the gut microbiota of A. cerana and A. mellifera could cross colonise between the two honey bee species. ConclusionOur findings revealed functional differences in most core gut bacteria between the guts of A. cerana and A. mellifera, which may be associated with their inter-species diversity. However, the functional profiles of the overall gut microbiomes between the two honey bee species converge, probably as a result of the overlapping ecological niches of the two species. Our findings provide critical insights into the evolution and functional roles of the mutualistic microbiota of honey bees and reveal that functional redundancy could stabilise the gene content diversity at the strain-level within the gut community.

Honey Bee Habitat Sharing Enhances Gene Flow of the Parasite Nosema ceranae.

Host-parasite co-evolution is a process of reciprocal, adaptive genetic change. In natural conditions, parasites can shift to other host species, given both host and parasite genotypes allow this. Even though host-parasite co-evolution has been extensively studied both theoretically and empirically, few studies have focused on parasite gene flow between native and novel hosts. Nosema ceranae is a native parasite of the Asian honey bee Apis cerana, which infects epithelial cells of mid-guts. This parasite successfully switched to the European honey bee Apis mellifera, where high virulence has been reported. In this study, we used the parasite N. ceranae and both honey bee species as model organisms to study the impacts of two-host habitat sharing on parasite diversity and virulence. SNVs (Single Nucleotide Variants) were identified from parasites isolated from native and novel hosts from sympatric populations, as well as novel hosts from a parapatric population. Parasites isolated from native hosts showed the highest levels of polymorphism. By comparing the parasites isolated from novel hosts between sympatric and parapatric populations, habitat sharing with the native host significantly enhanced parasite diversity, suggesting there is continuing gene flow of parasites between the two host species in sympatric populations.

Himalayan Giant Honey Bee, Cliff Honey Bee (suggested common names) Apis laboriosa Smith (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Apidae)

The Featured Creatures collection provides in-depth profiles of insects, nematodes, arachnids and other organisms relevant to Florida. These profiles are intended for the use of interested laypersons with some knowledge of biology as well as academic audiences. Although the Himalayan giant honey bee Apis laboriosa Smith is the largest honey bee species in the world, it is also one of the least studied. It has a distribution mostly concentrated in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region of southern Asia.

Genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationship among the western and the Asian honey bees based on two mitochondrial gene segments (COI and ND5).

The Asian honey bee species i.e., Apis cerana (the eastern honey bee), A. dorsata (the giant honey bee), and the western or European honey bee (A. mellifera) collected from Pakistan were studied using partial sequences from two mitochondrial genes (i) the Cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) and (ii) the mitochondrially encoded NADH dehydrogenase 5 (ND5) and then compared with other honey bees sequences (already submitted from different countries around the globe) obtained after the national center for biotechnology information (NCBI). DNA sequences were analyzed employing molecular evolutionary genetics analysis and Kimura 2-parameter model, neighbor-joining method was applied to investigate phylogenetic relationships, and DNA sequence polymorphism was applied to measure the genetic diversity within the genus Apis. The phylogenetic analyses yielded consistent results. Based on COI gene fragment in two Asian and European honey bee species from Pakistan and from other countries showed considerable genetic diversity levels and deviation among the species. While in contrast the phylogenetic analyses based on ND5 gene fragment in Asian and European honey bee species from Pakistan and other countries showed comparatively higher genetic diversity indices and variations than the COI gene. So, in the genus Apis, the mitochondrial ND5 region has shown the possibility to answer the interactions among species. A further detailed work (by linking the analysis of other genomic and mitochondrial genes) is required for good quality solution to establish the concise genetic diversity and interaction among the Apis species. The objective of this study was to explore the extent of genetic differences and phylogenetic links among the three kinds of honey bee species from Pakistan and comparing them with other bee species around the globe.

Investigasi pengaruh pengenceran sampel madu pada proses klasifikasi madu menggunakan uv spectroscopy dan kemometrika

One form of honey adulteration is label adulteration for some premium honey such as uniflora honey from the honeybee species Trigona sp. One of the analytical methods that are currently developing and have the potential to perform the classification of premium honey in Indonesia is the UV spectroscopy method. In this study, an investigation was carried out on the effect of dilution on the performance of UV spectroscopy in the process of classifying Indonesian honey with different honeybees. A total of 4 types of honey samples with 10 samples each were used in this study. The honey sample was then diluted using distilled water. Each type of honey was given two dilution treatments, namely 1:20 (volume: volume) dilution of 5 samples and 1:40 (volume: volume) dilution of 5 samples. Spectral data were taken using a UV-visible spectrometer with a wavelength of 190-1100 nm (Genesys™ 10S UV-Vis, Thermo Scientific, USA) using the transmittance mode. The results of spectra analysis generally show that the sample with a 1:20 dilution has a higher absorbance intensity for both the original and modified spectra. The PCA results for each dilution showed that the honey samples could be separated into four different clusters for both 1:20 and 1:40 dilutions. The results of PCA analysis using all samples showed that the honey samples were classified into eight different clusters showing a significant effect of differences in honey sample dilution on the classification process of honey samples based on differences in the types of honeybees.

Mitochondrial DNA based molecular phylogeny of Indian honeybee, Apis cerana F. in Bangladesh

The Indian honey bees, Apis cerana are considered as an important component of pollination and honey production however, it’s genetic diversity with reference to phylogeny is not being studied yet and thus, resulted only the involvement of Apis mellifera population in apiculture of Bangladesh. The climatic oscillation influenced the genetic diversity of different honeybee species through its wide range of genetic distribution. This study aims to reveal the mitochondrial DNA based genetic information of A. cerana population from Bangladesh. Sampling was executed from 7 localities of Bangladesh based on the foraging sources and analysis were based on the mitochondrial Cytochrome oxidase subunit-1 (COI) gene of 623 bp from 11 concatenated sequences (GenBank accession number: MZ558037- MZ558043).The phylogenetic tree resulted that the Apis cerana population from the southern part of country belonging to the clade of Apis cerana indica however, the central part of the country has the population structure similar to the Apis cerana japonica types. A. cerana cerana representing as the ancestral derivatives among the subspecies. This is the first report of occurring two subspecies in Bangladesh. These findings reveal the differentiation and the demographic expansion of Apis cerana population in Bangladesh with its divergent gene flow with anthropogenic effects. This genetic information will led to introduce Apis cerana species to the beekeeper’s of Bangladesh along with the existing Apis mellifera population.

Complementary Contribution of Wild Bumblebees and Managed Honeybee to the Pollination Niche of an Introduced Blueberry Crop.

Simple SummaryBlueberry is a crop that is increasing globally, both in terms of yield and extent, mostly thanks to the recent introduction of North American blueberry in the temperate areas of Europe, Asia, and South America. As blueberry depends largely on insects for pollination, farmers in these expansion areas face the challenge of adapting this crop to unexpected pollinator species, whose traits and features may not entirely fit the pollination needs of the introduced crop. Here we study the abundance, the behaviour, and the response to environmental conditions of different managed and wild native pollinators of blueberry in northern Spain. Our findings suggest the dominant role of native wild bumblebees and managed honeybee as suppliers of pollination service. Honeybee and bumblebees differed in both when and where they occurred, in how they responded to environmental conditions, and in how they behaved as an effective pollinator. The role of bumblebees and honeybee as blueberry pollinators thus seems complementary and additive. These results encourage the preservation of populations of native wild bees in order to ensure the effective management of introduced blueberry crops.The entomophilous pollination niche (abundance, phenotypic traits, foraging behaviours and environmental tolerances of insect pollinators) helps to understand and better manage crop pollination. We apply this niche approach to assess how an entomophilous crop (blueberry, Vaccinium ashei) can be expanded into new territories (i.e., northern Spain) far from their original area of domestication (North America). Insect visits to blueberry flowers were monitored in a plantation on 12 different days, at 8 different times during day and covering various weather conditions. Abundance, visitation rate, pollen gathering behaviour, and frequency of inter-plant and inter-row movements were recorded. The pollinator assemblage was basically composed of one managed honeybee species (50.8% of visits) and three native bumblebee species (48.3%). There was a marked pattern of seasonal segregation throughout bloom, with bumblebees dominating the early bloom and honeybee the late bloom. Pollinators also segregated along gradients of daily temperature and relative humidity. Finally, the two pollinator types differed in foraging behaviour, with bumblebees having a visitation rate double that of honeybee, collecting pollen more frequently and changing plant and row more frequently. The spatio-temporal and functional complementarity between honeybee and bumblebees suggested here encourages the consideration of an integrated crop pollination strategy for blueberries, based on the concurrence of both wild and managed bees.

Physicochemical and antibacterial activities of Apis honey types derived from Coorg, Karnataka, India

Natural honey has various ingredients in it that contribute to its incredible properties. The aim of this investigation was to evaluate the physicochemical and antibacterial activity of various Apis honey from Coorg, Karnataka. Four samples of Apis honey viz., A. florea, A. mellifera, A. cerana and A. dorsata were collected from various regions of Coorg, Karnataka. The honey samples' physicochemical properties and antibacterial activities against Streptococcus sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis and Enterococcus sp were determined in vitro. The moisture and ash content varied from 13.6 - 17.2% and 0.32 – 0.49%, respectively. Hydroxy methyl furfurals) content of A. dorsata honey samples was highest with 9.2±0.5 mg/Kg and least was recorded with 6.8±0.4 mg/Kg for A. florae honey. The reducing sugar content of A. florea honey sample was highest with 87.5±3.2 (%) and the peroxide levels were in the range of 10.2 – 14.9 µg/g/h at 20°C. The antibacterial assay revealed that S. aureus, Enterococcus sp and Streptococcus sp were most susceptible against the honey varieties tested and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values between 25-6.5 (%v/v) were determined. In conclusion, honey varieties from Coorg could be used in specific antibacterial prophylaxis as the activity depends on the honey bee species, their metabolism and floral sources in specific geographical regions.

Honey bees show dance pattern to communicate – A review

The honey bee language is considered by many to be one of the most interesting systems for animal communications, used for recruitment to food sources. Honeybee's forager dancers communicate food and other resources to the household by quantity, consistency, direction, and spatial location. The waggle dance was interesting and complex, which bees used for spatial information on desired resources. All honeybee species use the waggle dance to convey their position and distance from food sources and possible new nest sites. The research was carried out on dance communication, earlier ideas, controversies, and solutions gave a broad overview. In this analysis, unique problems are focused on as follows: (a) multiple dance forms. (b) Distance and path calculation (c) How bees do dark hive dance.? Several experiments verified that bees perform various kinds of dance, depending on their particular task. There is, however, still a lack of comprehensive knowledge on other types of dances, which help us solve numerous questions and help us better understand the meaning of the different kinds of dances carried in and outside the hive by honeybees.

Preliminary Study on Moisture, Fat, and Protein Contents of Bee Bread From Apis cerana from Different Regions in North Lombok Regency, Indonesia

Apis cerana is one of the honeybee species from the Apis genus that produce honey, bee bread, royal jelly, and propolis. The objective of this study was to determine the honeybee forages as the pollen source and to evaluate the moisture, fat, and protein contents of bee bread from the bee of Apis cerana from different regions (Sigar Penjalin, Teniga, and Medana villages) in North Lombok, Indonesia. The methods used to determine the pollen source were taken flowers sample and then checking pollen at anther of flowers. The moisture, fat, and protein contents were determined using proximate analysis. The results showed that the honeybee forages as the pollen source from Sigar Penjalin village were maize, cashew, damar, kapok, calabash, breadfruit, passion fruit, and acacia. The plant flowers as the pollen source from Teniga village were coconut, coffee, cacao, citrus, guava, leucaena, papaya, and sugar palm, while those from Medana village were jackfruit, mangosteen, Java apple, maize, rice, candlenut, soybean, and banana. The moisture and fat contents of bee bread from Sigar Penjalin and Teniga villages were similar, and both were lower than the moisture and fat contents of bee bread from Medana village. The protein content of bee bread from Sigar Penjalin and Medana villages were similar, and both were lower than the protein content of bee bread from Teniga village. Thus, the bee bread from Teniga village was higher in protein content for all beekeeping regions, however Teniga village and Sigar Penjalin were similar in moisture and fat contents.

Foraging Behavior and Pollen Transport by Flower Visitors of the Madeira Island Endemic Echium candicans.

Simple SummaryThe successful conservation of many endangered island plants depends on the pollination services provided by animals. In this study, we identify the flower visitors of Echium candicans, a charismatic plant exclusive to the island of Madeira, and also evaluate their performance as pollinators by analyzing their behavior on the flowers and the pollen they transport on their body. We found that many different animals visit this plant’s flowers, from insects to reptiles, but bees were the most frequent visitors. Large bees visited more flowers and transported more pollen of Echium candicans compared to other pollinators, like butterflies and hoverflies. However, by visiting many flowers in the same plant large bees might contribute to inbreeding, whilst the other animals visited fewer flowers in each plant favoring outcrossing. We conclude that the different flower visitors of Echium candicans provide complementary services as pollinators and highlight the importance of having diverse communities of pollinators to ensure successful pollination in many island plants.The study of flower visitor behavior and pollen transport dynamics within and between plants can be of great importance, especially for threatened or rare plant species. In this work, we aim to assess the flower visitor assemblage of the Madeiran endemic Echium candicans and evaluate the performance of the most common visitors through the analysis of their foraging behavior and pollen loads. The flower visitor assemblage of E. candicans is diverse, including several insect groups and the endemic lizard Teira dugesii, but bees are the most common visitors. In general, large bees (Amegilla quadrifasciata, Apis mellifera, and Bombus spp.) had the highest average visitation rates (>18 flowers/min) and their pollen loads had higher percentages of homospecific pollen (>66%) when compared with butterflies and hoverflies. The honeybee (Apis mellifera) and two bumblebees (Bombus terrestris and B. ruderatus) were the most efficient flower visitors of E. candicans, but their foraging behavior seems to favor geitonogamy. Other visitors, such as butterflies and the small bee Lasioglossum wollastoni, may have a complementary role to the honeybee and bumblebee species, as their high mobility is associated with fewer flower visits on each plant and may promote xenogamy. Two non-native bees (A. mellifera and B. ruderatus) are important flower visitors of E. candicans and may contribute mostly to self-pollination rendering the endemic plant more vulnerable to inbreeding effects.

Drone cell cappings of Asian cavity-nesting honey bees (Apis spp.)

Drone pupae of Apis cerana are sealed in their cells under a hard silken cap with a central pore, a feature notably lacking in the closely related species, Apis nigrocincta. In this paper, the hard cap with a pore is confirmed for drone cells of four additional species or putative species of cavity-nesting honey bees of Asia. Inaccuracies in the literature related to cell cappings of Asian bees are clarified. The character state of the drone cell cap for each taxon was added to a recent phylogeny for the genus Apis. Parsimony analysis indicates that the hard cap evolved once in the common ancestor to all Asian cavity-nesting honey bees and was subsequently lost in Apis nigrocincta. Possible functions of the hard drone cell cap are reviewed, but the true functions of the cap and the reasons underlying its loss in A. nigrocincta remain unresolved.

Morphology, morphometrics, and molecular characteristics of Apis cerana and Apis nigrocincta from Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

Systematics of honey bees has developed rapidly. Several studies have attempted to infer the kinship between each group of honey bees. One approach is the use identification and phylogenetic analysis using combination of morphology, morphometric, and molecular characteristics data. There are three species of honey bees found in the Central Sulawesi, namely Apis dorsata, A. cerana and A. nigrocincta. The last two species mentioned have similar biological properties, so they present some difficulties to identify especially with morphological characters only. The results showed that the two Apis bee species analyzed in this study, had similar morphological features compared to specimens of the same species from the other regions, whereas the morphometry of the two had variations in size compared to the same species that have been reported in other regions. The variations in the size or morphometric character of worker bees, both those with a larger or smaller size, possibly being a form of morphological adaptation to different environmental conditions. The CO1 and 16S Mitochondrial DNA sequencesof A. cerana and A. nigrocincta from this studywere similarto thesequences of the same species in the GeneBank’s database. This study provide preliminary data contributing to the preservation and utilization of one of Indonesia’s important biodiversity resources.

The genomic basis of evolutionary differentiation among honey bees.

In contrast to the western honey bee, Apis mellifera, other honey bee species have been largely neglected despite their importance and diversity. The genetic basis of the evolutionary diversification of honey bees remains largely unknown. Here, we provide a genome-wide comparison of three honey bee species, each representing one of the three subgenera of honey bees, namely the dwarf (Apis florea), giant (A. dorsata), and cavity-nesting (A. mellifera) honey bees with bumblebees as an outgroup. Our analyses resolve the phylogeny of honey bees with the dwarf honey bees diverging first. We find that evolution of increased eusocial complexity in Apis proceeds via increases in the complexity of gene regulation, which is in agreement with previous studies. However, this process seems to be related to pathways other than transcriptional control. Positive selection patterns across Apis reveal a trade-off between maintaining genome stability and generating genetic diversity, with a rapidly evolving piRNA pathway leading to genomes depleted of transposable elements, and a rapidly evolving DNA repair pathway associated with high recombination rates in all Apis species. Diversification within Apis is accompanied by positive selection in several genes whose putative functions present candidate mechanisms for lineage-specific adaptations, such as migration, immunity, and nesting behavior.