HIV Prevalence States In India Research Articles

Sociodemographic correlates of discrimination against PLHIV in High HIV prevalence states of India, NFHS 2016–21

This study investigates the socio-demographic correlates of HIV discrimination among individuals aged 15–49 years. This study also aims to assess the change in discriminatory attitudes towards PLHIV in high HIV prevalence states from 2016 to 2021 using data from the national Demographic Health Survey (4th and 5th). To identify factors associated with discriminatory attitudes, a multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed. Further, predicted probabilities and average marginal effects were computed, and the difference in discriminatory attitudes across both rounds was examined using a non-linear Fairlie decomposition. Mass media exposure, improved wealth index, and comprehensive knowledge significantly reduced the discriminatory attitudes towards PLHIV. Fairlie decomposition indicated that comprehensive knowledge, knowledge of mother-to-child transmission, and mass media exposure was significant contributor to the differences observed in the discriminatory attitude towards PLHIV across survey rounds. This study emphasizes the importance of spreading accurate information about HIV transmission modes and reinforces existing programmes and policies aimed at reducing stigma and discrimination against PLHIV. These programmes' efficiency and effectiveness can be ensured by linking them with community-level programmes and activities organized by Self Help Groups (SHGs), which have resulted in a paradigm shift in empowering women in India.

Tracking changes in HIV-related risk behaviour among men aged 15–54 in high HIV prevalence states in India: evidence from NFHSs

Tracking changes in HIV-related risk behaviour among men aged 15–54 in high HIV prevalence states in India: evidence from NFHSs

P248 Fungal meningitis in an immunocompetent individual

Poster session 2, September 22, 2022, 12:30 PM - 1:30 PM ObjectiveFungal meningitis is commonly seen in individuals who are immunocompromised. It's a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in people living with HIV worldwide. Among HIV-infected patients of Manipur, it is the most common cause of meningitis and Cryptococcus neoformans is the only species identified so far both in HIV infected population and non-HIV patients in Manipur. The aim of this paper is to highlight the detection of C. gattii meningitis in the high HIV prevalence state of India.MethodA 53-year-old male, mechanic by profession residing in a village in Thoubal district of Manipur attended Medicine OPD with complaints of intractable headache, aggravated by sound and light, generalized weakness, hiccups, vomiting, and decreased appetite for 2 weeks. There was no history of altered sensorium. He is a known case of hypertension and was recently diagnosed with T2DM, not on medication.ResultsAn MRI brain (Fig.1) showed a tiny sub-centric lesion in the bilateral centrum semiovale. Cerebrospinal fluid examination by India Ink preparation revealed capsulated budding yeast cells suggestive of Cryptococcus sps. Cryptococcal antigen testing (CryptoPS, Biosynex) was positive with a high titer. Culture on SDA and BSA showed growth of Cryptococcus sps. For phenotypic identification and antifungal susceptibility testing, the isolate was processed in VITEK 2(Biomerieux) system which identified it as C. gatti (94% probability). The isolate was sensitive to amphotericin B (mic: 0.5 μg/ml) and flucytosine (mic: 2 μg/ml). He tested negative for HIV on two occasions and his CD4 + count was 888 cell/mm3. Blood sugar was 225 mg/dl, with urine glucose leakage in traces. Blood and urine were collected for fungal culture which showed no growth. The patient was put on liposomal amphotericin B 200 mg daily. After 1 week, patient's condition was not deteriorating, although the improvement was minimal. The isolate was sent to the National Culture Collection of Pathogenic Fungi, PGIMER, Chandigarh, and it was confirmed as Cryptococcus gattii by MALDI-TOF assay.ConclusionDetection of C. gattii in an immunocompetent patient in Manipur state, with a high prevalence of HIV is alarming because cryptococcal meningitis is the commonest form of meningitis in this population. In future, whenever Cryptococcus sps is isolated, it will be pertinent to keep in mind the possibility of other species of Cryptococcus to be the causative pathogen. We emphasize the importance and need for surveillance to detect its environmental niche.

An Analysis of Levels and Trends in HIV Prevalence Among Pregnant Women Attending Antenatal Clinics in Karnataka, South India, 2003-2019.

Background and Objective:Periodic tracking of the trends and the levels of HIV prevalence at regional and district levels helps to strengthen a state’s HIV/AIDS response. HIV prevalence among pregnant women is crucial for the HIV prevalence estimation of the general population. Karnataka is one of the high HIV prevalence states in India. Probing regional and district levels and trends of HIV prevalence provides critical insights into district-level epidemic patterns. This paper analyzes the region- and district-wise levels and trends of HIV prevalence among pregnant women attending the antenatal clinics (ANC) from 2003 to 2019 in Karnataka, South India.Methods:HIV prevalence data collected from pregnant women in Karnataka during HIV Sentinel Surveillance (HSS) between 2003 and 2019 was used for trend analysis. The consistent sites were grouped into four zones (Bangalore, Belgaum, Gulbarga and Mysore regions), totaling 60 sites, including 30 urban and 30 rural sites. Regional and district-level HIV prevalence was calculated; trend analysis using Chi-square trend test and spatial analysis using QGIS software was done. For the last three HSS rounds, HIV prevalence based on sociodemographic variables was calculated to understand the factors contributing to HIV positivity in each region.Results:In total, 254,563 pregnant women were recruited. HIV prevalence in Karnataka was 0.22 (OR: 0.15 95% CI: 0.16 - 0.28) in 2019. The prevalence was 0.24, 0.32, 0.17 and 0.14 in Bangalore, Belgaum, Gulbarga, and Mysore regions, respectively. HIV prevalence had significantly (P< 0.05) declined in 26 districts.Conclusion and Global Health Implications:HIV prevalence among pregnant women was comparatively higher in Bangalore and Belgaum regions. Analysis of contextual factors associated with the transmission risk and evidence-based targeted interventions will strengthen HIV management in Karnataka. Regionalized, disaggregated, sub-national analyses will help identify emerging pockets of infections, concentrated epidemic zones and contextual factors driving the disease transmission.

Impact of an HIV Prevention Intervention on HIV Risk Behavior and Sexually Transmitted Infection among Female Sex Workers in Tamil Nadu, India.

BackgroundIn 2003 a large-scale HIV prevention program was launched for key populations in six high HIV prevalence states of India. This paper assesses the effect of exposure to the intervention on condom use with commercial clients and experiences of sexually transmitted infection (STI) among female sex workers (FSWs) in Tamilnadu, a southern Indian state, between 2006 and 2009.MethodsData were drawn from two rounds of cross-sectional surveys conducted in 2006 (N = 2010) and 2009 (N = 2500) among FSWs in Tamilnadu, recruited through probability-based sampling. A series of multivariate logistic regression models were constructed to examine the association between exposure to the intervention and change over time with condom use and self-reported STI. All the analyses were performed using STATA 11.1.ResultsOverall, 48% of FSWs in 2006 and 90% in 2009 reported exposure to the intervention. Compared to 2006, there was a considerable increase in the proportion of FSWs reporting consistent condom use with regular and occasional clients at follow-up (2009). Further, the increase in consistent condom use over time with occasional (adjusted OR = 3.53, 95% CI: 2.47 - 5.05) and regular clients (adjusted OR = 4.97, 95% CI: 3.43 - 7.16) was significantly higher among FSWs exposed to the intervention than those not exposed. Additionally, a significant decline was observed in self-reported STI overtime among FSWs exposed to the intervention compared to their counterparts (adjusted OR = 0.39, 95% CI: 0.26 - 0.59).ConclusionThe HIV prevention program in Tamilnadu resulted in increased consistent condom use and a decrease in self-reported STI among FSWs exposed to intervention. These findings suggest that HIV prevention programs should aim to saturate coverage among key populations to sustain the gains achieved.

Factors associated with HIV testing among male injecting drug users: findings from a cross-sectional behavioural and biologicalsurvey in Manipur and Nagaland, India.

BackgroundAlthough targeted interventions in India require all high-risk groups, including injecting drug users (IDUs), to test for HIV every 6 months, testing uptake among IDUs remains far from universal. Our study estimates the proportion of IDUs who have taken an HIV test and identifies the factors associated with HIV testing uptake in Nagaland and Manipur, two high HIV prevalence states in India where the epidemic is driven by injecting drug use.MethodsData are drawn from the cross-sectional Integrated Behavioural and Biological Assessment (2009) of 1650 male IDUs from two districts each of Manipur and Nagaland. Participants were recruited using respondent-driven sampling (RDS). Descriptive data were analysed using RDSAT 7.1. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was undertaken using STATA 11 to examine the association between HIV testing and socio-demographic, behavioural and programme exposure variables.ResultsOne third of IDUs reported prior HIV testing, of whom 8 % had tested HIV-positive. Among those without prior testing, 6.2 % tested HIV-positive in the current survey. IDUs aged 25–34 years (adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 1.41; 95 % confidence interval (CI) = 1.03–1.93), married (Adjusted OR = 1.56; 95 % CI = 1.15–2.12), had a paid sexual partner (Adjusted OR = 1.64; 95 % CI = 1.24–2.18), injected drugs for more than 36 months (Adjusted OR = 1.38; 95 % CI = 1.06–1.81), injected frequently (Adjusted OR = 1.49; 95 % CI = 1.12–1.98) and had high-risk perception (Adjusted OR = 1.68; 95 % CI = 1.32–2.14) were more likely than others to test for HIV. Compared to those with no programme exposure, IDUs who received counselling, or counselling and needle/syringe services, were more likely to test for HIV.ConclusionsHIV testing uptake among IDUs is low in Manipur and Nagaland, and a critical group of HIV-positive IDUs who have never tested for HIV are being missed by current programmes. This study identifies key sub-groups—including early initiators, short duration and less frequent injectors, perceived to be at low risk—for promoting HIV testing. Providing needles/syringes alone is not adequate to increase HIV testing; additionally, interventions must provide counselling services to inform all IDUs about HIV testing benefits, facilitate visits to testing centres and link those testing positive to timely treatment and care.

Prevalence of Drug Resistance Associated Mutations Among the Anti Retroviral Therapy Exposed HIV-1 Infected Individuals in Manipur, Northeast India.

Manipur is one of the highest HIV prevalence states of India because of its geographical location at the international border near the golden triangle of South-East Asia, but no study on drug resistance associated mutations (DRAMs) has been reported yet. A population-based study on DRAMs of HIV-1 among the anti-retroviral therapy (ART) exposed HIV-1 infected individuals of Manipur was conducted. 110 HIV-1 positive individuals who had initially exposed to first line anti-HIV drugs were recruited for the surveillance of DRAMs. Reverse transcriptase and protease genes of HIV-1 were amplified, sequenced and analyzed. Significant prevalence of DRAMs of HIV-1 was found among the ART exposed HIV-1 infected individuals of Manipur. The results revealed that 37%, 29% and 7% individuals harbor HIV-1 strains mutated at the target sites of nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and protease inhibitors respectively. Predominant DRAMs at RT genes were M184V, T215Y, M41L and V108I and H221Y while at PR genes were M46I and I47V. Among the high risk groups, intravenous drug users have the highest number of DRAMs followed by heterosexual individuals. Analysis of viral subtype based on pol gene revealed 83% subtype C, 11.8% recombinant forms and 5.2% subtype B. DRAMs at the target sites of reverse transcriptase inhibitors are high and these were found to have developed resistance to the primary ART drugs that are used in Manipur. The findings of this study will help the clinicians to guide patients during the course of ART treatment regimes.

Womens Empowerment and their Vulnerability to HIV in India: Evidences from NFHS-4

Over the years, there has been growing evidence of continuous narrowing gender gap in new HIV infections. It may be primarily due to poor status of women, lack of control over sexuality and poor reproductive and sexual rights among women. This paper utilizes the data from two rounds of National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3 & 4), Indian version of Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). The results portray that despite the increase in women empowerment in India, measured with indicators namely ownership of household assets including house/land, having separate bank/saving account, and owning a mobile phone, the comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS, a means to reduce women’s vulnerability to HIV/AIDS has not improved significantly. The study also states that the level of spousal violence has reduced by almost 20 percent in NFHS-4 as compared to NFHS-3. The prevalence of women participation in household decision making his increased in all the states compared to last round. There is an extensive awareness among women regarding condom use as a protection against HIV, yet the comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS among women is below expected level. The relationship between women’s empowerment and contracting HIV infections has been accepted worldwide. However, the recent evidence from NFHS 4 do not support pronounced association between women’s empowerment and consistent condom use vis a vis prevalence of HIV. The relationship seems to be spurious in well-known high HIV prevalence states of India like Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur and Karnataka. Therefore, all the programmes to curve the pace of HIV epidemic focusing at reducing woman’s vulnerability to HIV/AIDS, should not merely focus at general woman’s empowerment but there should be specific awareness and capacity building programmes addressing comprehensive knowledge and condom promotion among women.

Does Mass-Media Public Communication Campaign Normalize Discussion, Attitude and Behavior about Condom Use among Married Men in India?

Background: ‘Condom’ is a stigmatized topic in India. Open discussion about its use and promotion are considered inappropriate. This study examines the association between exposure to public service announcements (PSA) around condoms and discussion, attitude and behavioral intentions about condom use among married men by their age and socio-economic status. Methods: A sub-sample of monogamous married men (N=2502) was obtained from 2009 BBC World Service Trust’s condom normalization survey among men in four high HIV prevalence states in India. The multiple logistic regression models were used to analyze the association of exposure to PSA around condoms with discussion, attitudes and behavioral intentions about condom and its usage. Result: More than half married men (55%) were younger (<=35 years), having better socio-economic status (educated above secondary levels and employed) (55%) and exposed to condom PSA (64%). Exposure to PSA was associated with greater likelihood to seek condom information (AOR: 1.33; p=0.010), positive attitude (AOR: 1.24; p=0.008), higher self-efficacy (AOR: 1.53; p=0.006) in using and, last time condom use (AOR: 2.15; p=0.023) among better SES group; with positive caring attitude (AOR: 1.27; p=0.010), ease in purchasing condom (AOR: 2.04, p=0.009) among older (35+ years) men, and with last time condom use among younger men (AOR: 1.85; p=0.037). Conclusion: The findings of the study highlight an important contention that linkage between mass-media campaigns and promotion of condom normalization through discussion, seeking information and intention to use and its usage goes beyond as a behavior change strategy to include dimensions of age, educational attainment and economic status. The effectiveness of mass media campaigns for normalizing condom discussion is largely mediated by demographic and socio-economic variables. Future campaigns need to address these variables to be more effective.

Understanding the Factors Associated with Alcohol Use among Female Sex Workers in a High HIV Prevalence Northeast State of India

Background: The paper illustrates the factors associated with alcohol use among FSWs in Dimapur, an important commercial hub of Nagaland, which is a high HIV prevalence state of India. Methods: The analysis is based on 417 FSWs aged 18 years or older who participated in round 2 of Integrated Behavioural and Biological Assessment (IBBA). Results: There is a significant association between ever consumption of alcohol use in the past month among FSWs and socio-demographic, sexual behaviour and safe sexual practices (p 10th standard of education (0.311 times, p ≤ 0.001), drug use (5 times, p ≤ 0.001), sharing of injecting drugs with the partner ( 3.7 times, p ≤ 0.001) were independently associated with Alcohol use respectively .Those FSWs have first sex and first started sex work at age 15-20 years were 6.3 (p ≤ 0.05) and 2.4 (p ≤ 0.05) times more likely to use alcohol . One significant finding is those female sex workers were less likely to use alcohol consumption that has 5-9 clients per week. Alcohol using older (25+ years) FSWs were 9 times more likely to have HIV. Married FSWs those using alcohol, were less likely to have HIV, and those alcohol using FSWs aged at first sex was 15-20 years, 5 times more likely to have HIV seropositivity. Alcohol using FSWs were 30 times more likely to have HIV, who served their client at Lodge/ Hotel. Conclusion: The findings suggest a need to integrate intervention for alcohol use and related problems in multilevel contexts and with multiple components to effectively reduce alcohol use and to mitigate inconsistent condom use.

Association Between System Reach and Exposure to Interventions and Characteristics of Mobile Female Sex Workers in Four High HIV Prevalence States in India.

Mobility among Female Sex Workers (FSWs) interrupts their demand for, and utilization of, health services under any intervention. Various strategic interventions are meant to provide access to care and reduce the incidence of HIV and other STIs among FSWs. This paper applies a bivariate probit regression analysis to explain the probability of mobile FSWs being reached by the system and being exposed to interventions jointly with a wide variety of characteristics of mobile FSWs in India. The data used are based on a cross-section survey among 5,498 mobile FSWs in 22 districts of four high HIV prevalence states in southern India. A majority of mobile FSWs (59%) were street-based and about 70 percent of them were members of SW organization and nearly half (46%) were highly mobile. The majority of them (90%) had been contacted by outreach workers from any system in the last two years in their current location and 94 percent were exposed to interventions in terms of getting free or subsidized condoms. Bivariate probit analysis revealed that comprehensive interventions are able to reach more vulnerable mobile FSWs effectively, e.g. new entrants, highly mobile, reported STIs, tested for HIV ever and serving a high volume of clients. The results complement the efforts of government and other agencies in response to HIV. However, the results highlight that specific issues related to various subgroups of this highly vulnerable population remain unaddressed calling for tailoring the response to the specific needs of the sub-groups.

Heterosexual anal sex among female sex workers in high HIV prevalence states of India: need for comprehensive intervention.

IntroductionRole of vaginal sex in heterosexual transmission of HIV has been investigated but that of heterosexual anal sex (HAS) is not fully understood. This paper examines practice of HAS among Female Sex Workers (FSWs) and its correlates in India where the HIV epidemic is being primarily driven by core groups like FSWs.MethodsData for this paper are drawn from Round I survey of 9667 FSWs in the Integrated Biological and Behavioral Assessment (IBBA) from 23 districts of 4 high HIV prevalent states of India. Bivariate and multivariate analysis identified factors associated with HAS.ResultsEver having anal sex was reported by 11.9% FSWs (95% CI: 11.3%–12.6%). Typology (AOR 2.20, 95% CI 1.64–2.95) and literacy (AOR 1.28, 95% CI 1.10–1.49) were positively associated with practice of HAS. Longer duration in sex trade (AOR 1.69, 95% CI 1.44–1.99), entertaining larger number of clients the previous week (AOR 1.78, 95% CI 1.47–2.15), alcohol consumption (AOR 1.21, 95% CI 1.03–1.42) and inability to negotiate condom use (AOR 1.53, 95% CI 1.28–1.83) were also correlated with HAS. Self-risk perception for HIV (AOR 1.46, 95% CI 1.25–1.71) did not impede HAS. Although symptoms of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in the last 12 months were associated with anal sex (AOR 1.39, 95% CI 1.13–1.72) there was no significant association between laboratory confirmed HIV and other STIs with HAS.ConclusionPractice of HAS by FSWs might significantly contribute to HIV transmission in India. This study also shows that despite self-risk perception for HIV, even literate FSWs with longer duration in sex work report HAS. General messages on condom use may not influence safe HAS. FSWs need to be targeted with specific messages on HIV transmission during anal sex. Women controlled prevention methods, such as rectal microbicides and vaginal microbicides are needed.

P4.054 HIV/AIDS Epidemiological Correlates of Sexual Behaviour in Urban Migrants Tamilnadu, India

BackgroundMigrant population groups potentate the effect of ever-growing HIV/AIDS epidemic. Hotel migrant workers being one such group are at risk because of their age, economic independence, low level of education,...

P3.419 Effect of Intervention Exposure on Self-Reported Condom Use Among Men Who Have Sex with Men in Southern India

BackgroundThe Avahan HIV prevention intervention programme promotes condom use amongst men who have sex with men (MSM) in high HIV prevalence states in India. We assessed how self-reported condom use...

Are Female Sex Workers Able to Negotiate Condom Use with Male Clients? The Case of Mobile FSWs in Four High HIV Prevalence States of India

IntroductionCondom promotion among female sex workers (FSWs) is a key intervention in India’s National AIDS Control Program. However, there is limited understanding of how FSWs negotiate condom use with male clients, particularly in the context of their mobility for sex work. The objective of this study is to examine the factors associated with the mobile FSWs’ ability to refuse unsafe sex and successfully negotiate condom use with unwilling male clients.MethodsData for 5498 mobile FSWs from a cross-sectional survey conducted in 22 districts of four states in southern India were analyzed. Questions assessed FSWs’ ability to refuse clients unprotected sex, convince unwilling clients for condom use and negotiate condom use in a new location. Logistic regression models were constructed to examine the association between socio-demographics, economic vulnerability, sex work practice, and program exposure and condom negotiation ability.ResultsA majority of FSWs (60%) reported the ability to refuse clients for unprotected sex, but less than one-fifth reported the ability to successfully convince an unwilling client to use a condom or to negotiate condom use in a new site. Younger and older mobile FSWs compared to those who were in the middle age group, those with longer sex work experience, with an income source other than sex work, with program exposure and who purchased condoms for use, reported the ability to refuse unprotected sex, to successfully negotiate condom use with unwilling clients and to do so at new sites.ConclusionFSWs need to be empowered to not only refuse unprotected sex but also to be able to motivate and convince unwilling clients for condom use, including those in new locations. In addition to focusing on condom promotion, interventions must address the factors that impact FSWs’ ability to negotiate condom use.

Integrating syphilis screening in a large-scale HIV prevention program for key populations: the Avahan experience from India

Documented experiences from India on the implementation of syphilis screening in large-scale HIV prevention programs for "key populations at higher risk" (KPs) are limited. Avahan is a large-scale HIV prevention program providing services to more than 300,000 KPs in six high HIV prevalence states of India since 2004. Avahan clinics provide a sexually transmitted infection service package which includes bi-annual syphilis screening. The trends in the coverage of syphilis screening among Avahan clinic attendees were studied retrospectively. Screening was performed using either the Rapid Plasma Reagin (RPR) test or point-of-care immunochromatographic strip test (ICST). Clinic records from 2005 to 2009 were collated in an individual tracking database and analyzed with STATA-10. Initially the coverage of syphilis screening (2.6% in 2005) was constrained by the availability and operational complexity of the RPR test. After its introduction in 2007, the use of ICST for screening increased from 7.4% to 77.0% and the proportion of clinic attendees screened increased from 9.0% to 21.6% during 2007-2009. The RPR reactivity rates declined from 6.6% (2006) to 4.4% (2009). The data showed improved rates of screening of clinic attendees and declining trends in sero-reactivity over time. The introduction of point-of-care syphilis tests may have contributed to the improved coverage of syphilis screening. The ICST may be considered for initial syphilis screening at other resource-constrained primary care sites in India such as ante-natal clinics and other KP interventions.

Falling through the cracks: a qualitative study of HIV risks among women who use drugs and alcohol in Northeast India

BackgroundHIV risks for women who inject drugs and those who engage in sex work are well documented. Women who are dependent on non-injecting drugs and alcohol are also likely to have increased vulnerability to HIV infection, but until they actually inject drugs or engage in sex work, are unlikely to come to the attention of HIV prevention programs.MethodsWe undertook a qualitative study involving nine focus group discussions (FGDs) and 27 key informant interviews to investigate the context of female drug and alcohol use in two high HIV prevalence states of India (Manipur and Nagaland) and to describe their HIV risks. The FGD and interview transcripts were thematically analyzedResultsThe women were relatively young (mean age 31 years in Manipur and 28 years in Nagaland), but 64% in Manipur and 35% in Nagaland were widowed or divorced. Both heroin and alcohol were commonly used by the women from Manipur, while alcohol was primarily used by the women from Nagaland, especially in the context of ‘booze joints’ (illicit bars). Reasons for drug and alcohol use included: to avoid symptoms of withdrawal, to suppress emotional pain, to overcome the shame of sex work, pleasure, and widowhood. HIV vulnerability was clearly described, not only in relation to injecting drug use and sex work, but also alcohol consumption.ConclusionsThe contribution of alcohol use to the HIV vulnerability of women is not currently considered when HIV prevention programs are being designed and implemented leaving a group of high-risk women uncovered by much needed services such as treatment for a range of health problems including alcohol dependence.

Prevalence and correlates of sexually transmitted infections (Syphilis, gonorrheaand chlamydia) among female sex workers (FSW) in a high HIV prevalence state of India

Background:Syphilis becomesa re-emergingglobalhealth concern because of increasing reported prevalence amongHIV infected patients and teenagers in Thailand. This study is aimed at screening syphilis serology and assess risk behaviors in our HIV cohort in Bangkok, Thailand. Methods: Screening tests using VDRL and Architect Syphilis TP (Abbott) were performed and the self-assessment questionnaire about history of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and risk behaviors including condom use, substance abuse and alcohol intake was tested among the volunteers who provided their informed consent from August-December 2011. Results: Of total 420 subjects, 58.3% were male andmedian age (IQR) was 41 (37-47) years. The median (IQR) most recent CD4 cell counts was 550 (423.25-729.5) cells/ L . Among them, 86.1% and 89.4% had most recent HIV-RNA of <50 and <200 copies/mL, respectively. Half of them had their educational levels higher than secondary school (50.8%). Majority of the cases was heterosexual (75.2%) while homosexual men were 20.2%. History of STIs was found in 44%, one third ofwhich had been diagnosed and treated by a physician. History of syphilis reported by the questionnaire and confirmedby serologywas9%and8.1%, respectively. Amonghomosexual/bisexual men, 20% ever had syphilis. High titers of VDRL (≥ 1:8) were found in 50% of cases having VDRL positive. Among STIs, genital herpes and urethral pus were the most common (13.6% and 13.3%, respectively). 100% condom use was reported 75.8% and irregular use of condomwas mostly found among monogamy. Homosexual/bisexual was significantly associated with history of syphilis (p =0.001) and anal wart (p <0.001). No other risk behaviors were found statistically associated with history of STIs. Conclusion:Syphiliswasprevalent amongHIV infectedpatients in our cohort. Homosexual is at risk of syphilis and may require more often screening of STIs. Condom use should be encouraged to do regularly to prevent STIs.

Factors associated with history of drug use among female sex workers (FSW) in a high HIV prevalence state of India

BackgroundThe intersection between illicit drug use and female commercial sex work has been identified as an important factor responsible for rising HIV prevalence among female sex workers (FSW) in several northeastern states of India. But, little is know about the factors associated with the use of drugs among FSWs in this region. The objective of the paper was to describe the factors associated with history of drug use among FSWs in Dimapur, an important commercial hub of Nagaland, which is a high HIV prevalence state of India.MethodsFSWs were recruited using respondent driven sampling (RDS), and were interviewed to collect data on socio-demographic characteristics and HIV risk behaviours. Biological samples were tested for HIV, syphilis gonorrhea and Chlamydia. Logistic regression analysis was performed to identify factors associated with drug use.ResultsAmong the 426 FSWs in the study, about 25% (n = 107) reported having ever used illicit drugs. Among 107 illicit drug users, 83 (77.6%) were non-injecting and 24 (22.4%) were injecting drug users. Drug-using FSWs were significantly more likely to test positive for one or more STIs (59% vs. 33.5%), active syphilis (27.1% vs. 11.4%) and Chlamydia infection (30% vs. 19.9%) compared to their non-drug using peers. Drug-using FSWs were also significantly more likely to be currently married, widowed or separated compared with non-drug-using FSWs. In multiple logistic regression analysis, being an alcohol user, being married, having a larger volume of clients, and having sexual partners who have ever used or shared injecting drugs were found to be independently associated with illicit drug use.ConclusionsDrug-using FSWs were more vulnerable to STIs including HIV compared to their non-drug using peers. Several important factors associated with being an FSW who uses drugs were identified in this study and this knowledge can be used to plan more effectively targeted harm reduction strategies and programs.

Size estimation of injecting drug users (IDU) using multiplier method in five Districts of India

The HIV epidemic in Manipur, the highest HIV prevalence state of India, is primarily driven by injecting drug use. Reliable estimate of population size of injecting drug users (IDU) is critical for aiding HIV prevention program in the state to combat drug driven HIV epidemic. The study described multiplier method, an indirect technique of estimation of IDU size in five districts of Manipur, India making use of existing records of rapid intervention and care (RIAC) programs. Number of IDUs who accessed RIAC services during the past 12 months was taken as the benchmark data for the size estimation. The benchmark data were then multiplied by the inverse of the proportion of the IDUs who reported having accessed RIAC services during the same period to derive the sizes of IDU population in each study districts. The estimated sizes of IDU population in five districts were: 7353 (95% CI: 6759-8123) in Imphal West, 5806 (95% CI: 5635-6054) in Imphal East, 3816 (95% CI: 3571-4139) in Thoubal, 2615 (95% CI: 2528-2731) in Churachandpur and 2137 (95% CI: 1979-2343) in Bishenpur district. Multiplier method seems to be a feasible indirect technique which can be applied to estimate of IDU population using existing data from intervention programs in settings like Manipur where reliable size estimation of IDU population is lacking.