Historical Study Method Research Articles

DÎVÂNU LUGÂTİ’T-TÜRK İLE KARŞILAŞTIRMALI ALTAY TÜRKÇESİNDE İKİNCİL UZUN ÜNLÜLERİN VARLIĞI

There are 8 normal /a/, /e/, /ı/, /i/, /o/, /ö/, /ö/, /u/, /ü/ and 8 long vowels /aa/, /ee/, /ıı/, /ii/, /oo/, /öö/, /uu/, /üü/ in Altai Turkish. The frequency of use of /aa/, /ee/, /oo/, /öö/, /uu/, /üü/ is wider, while the frequency of use of /ıı/ and /ii/ is narrower, but there are examples where they are used. Altai Turkish has a significant number of long vowel formations that can be analysed in the historical process. Long vowel is expressed by the fact that the articulation time is longer than the normal vowel. Long vowels, which are handled under two headings according to their formation times, are divided into primary (‘original’) and secondary long vowels. Primary long vowels in Altai Turkish did not continue to exist regularly in the historical process like Yakut Turkish and Turkmen Turkish, but in this study, firstly, the examples of primary long vowels that have been preserved from the past to the present, identified as a result of the scanning study from the Altai Turkish dictionary, have been examined. Secondly, it is aimed to determine the existence of secondary long vowels that have formed as a result of contraction in the word structure in Altai Turkish from the Middle Turkish period to the present day, with the vocabulary found in Dîvânu Lugâti't-Türk. The aim of the study is to determine the secondary long vowels formed in the word as a result of contraction in Altai Turkish. The words identified from Altai Turkish Dictionary and Dîvânu Lugâti't-Türk vocabulary has been detected by using diachronic historical study method and scanning method. Keywords: Altai Turkish, Dîvânu Lugâti't-Türk, long vowels, primary long vowels, secondary long vowels.

History of Islamic Education in Indonesia

The history of Islamic education in Indonesia has undergone significant development along with the evolution of the national education system. The first Islamic education in Indonesia usually took place in Islamic boarding schools, which are traditional Islamic schools that focus on teaching the Quran and hadith. These pesantrens became the center for the development and spread of Islam in various parts of Indonesia. After Indonesia's independence in 1945, the Indonesian government committed to creating a national education system that covered all aspects of life. This included Islamic education, which is recognized as one of the majority religions in Indonesia. The government integrated Islamic education into the national education system by giving recognition and support to madrasahs (Islamic schools) as well as developing a curriculum that included aspects of Islam. Renewal in Islamic education thought and religious moderation have become an integral part of Islamic education in Indonesia. This effort aims to ensure that Islamic education not only fulfills religious needs, but also contributes to the formation of citizens who hold moderate views, are tolerant, and open to various religious views. This research uses the historical study method to examine the history of Islamic education in Indonesia. The researcher conducted a historical study of various sources, such as books, journals, educational reports, and documentation.

Reply to My Critics

Reply to My Critics Margaret Watkins (bio) Science is related to wisdom as virtuousness is related to holiness; it is cold and dry, it has not love and knows nothing of a deep feeling of inadequacy and longing. It is as useful to itself as it is harmful to its servants, insofar as it transfers its own character to them and thereby ossifies their humanity. As long as what is meant by culture is essentially the promotion of science, culture will pass the great suffering human being by with pitiless coldness, because science sees everywhere only problems of knowledge and because within the world of the sciences suffering is really something improper and incomprehensible, thus at best only one more problem.1 When Nietzsche writes these words in “Schopenhauer as Educator” in 1874, nearly a century after Hume’s death, he is not using “science” (Wissenschaft) to refer only to what we now know as the natural sciences. Indeed, as another essay in the Untimely Meditations makes clear, history is as much, if not more, in Nietzsche’s sights as biology or physics. He is naming a peculiar irony here: in the quest for a certain kind of progress—the progress of knowledge—we can end up killing any hope of progress for life. Certain methods of historical study are forms of enquiry whose spiritless effect is to “let the dead bury the living.”2 Our relentless quest to catalog and preserve the old robs us of the higher ways we might learn from it, or overcome it. We “historians of philosophy” can do this by reading past philosophers as dead artifacts, focusing intently on how they were responding to their particular contexts and pursuing their own projects. As indispensable as such study is, it can kill the texts’ potential to continue to inspire and inform philosophical thought of our own. [End Page 163] In writing The Philosophical Progress of Hume’s “Essays,” my hope was to counteract this tendency in myself and in readers of Hume—to show that these works often neglected by contemporary philosophers are still capable of inspiring life-giving, generative philosophical thought. (I do not say they are of more than “mere” historical interest; abusing the study of history with such a pernicious adverb runs counter to every fiber of my being.) Such thought need not be optimistic, encouraging, or even morally admirable at every step. It need simply inspire our own thought, activate that love of truth that Hume says can never “be carried to too high a degree,” or (preferably and) show us how that truth matters for human life (EHU 5.1).3 My attempts to achieve this aim have two primary modes: showing that the Essays can inspire vital philosophical reflection and arguing that they are themselves philosophical or works of philosophy. To put my cards on the table: the enemies within (and without) that run counter to this effort are the tendency to put a piece of philosophical writing under a microscope (whose lens might be analytic or historical) without ever asking why it matters, and the tendency to dismiss the writing as philosophical because it does not fit neatly into one of the current categories of our discipline or our understanding of “the” early modern philosophical project. I am therefore pleased that both my generous interlocutors, Jacqueline Taylor and Andre Willis, recognize my attempt to extend as well as explain Hume’s insights. There is far too much insight in their own contributions for me to do justice to. I will therefore limit my discussion to three main topics: the notion of Humean public spirit I attempt to elucidate in the book, the related problems of analytic distance, and the pressing question of the difference between Hume’s projects in other philosophical works—especially the two Enquiries—and his projects in the Essays. Although there is no essay called “Of Public Spirit,” it is still a significant concept for the Essays. The initial advertisement to the 1741 volume of Essays, Moral and Political included this observation: “Public Spirit, methinks, shou’d engage us to love the Public, and to bear an equal Affection to all our Country-Men; not...

Peranan Harem dalam Institusi Sosial dan Politik Uthmaniyyah

The history of harem institution has been a subject of interest among researchers on the Ottoman era for the reason of extraordinary involvement of women in administrative affairs of Ottoman politics, military and international relations. The emergence of some prominent Ottoman female figures such as Hurrem Sultan, Kosem Sultan and Turhan Sultan proved that the harem institution is very significant and dynamic.Therefore, the purpose of this article is to study the history of the Ottoman harem institution in general, besides analysing related issues on its role in the social and political aspects. This research uses a qualitative approach through the methods of historical study and content analysis, in gathering and analysing information from relevant materials and academic sources. From the results of the study, this research argues that the main role of the harem institution in the social aspect is the segregation of women to assigned spaces. In the political aspect, the harem has a significant effect on Ottoman administrative affairs, particularly in the 16th and 17th centuries. The harem institution was responsible for the continuity of administration, by giving birth to heirs for the throne and shaping a new dimension for the Ottoman’s international relations or external affairs through the role of diplomatic agents.

JAHANGIRS (1627-1658) LEADERSHIP ENDEAVOURS IN STRENGTHENING THE CONTINUITY OF THE MUGHALS IN INDIA

Jahangir succeeded his father, Akbar after the latter stabilised Mughal rule in India. Although there are arguments that Jahangir did not achieve successes like his father, there were some endeavours by Jahangir which strengthened the continuity of Mughal rule. Hence, the purpose of this article is to examine his efforts to consolidate Mughal rule in India in his time. On the whole, this is a qualitative research using the methods of historical study and content analysis. Data was collected from primary and secondary sources and analysed. Research findings show that Jahangir was more focused on domestic development such as proclaiming Dustur al-Amal for administration. He also succeeded in putting down rebellions and developed culture and arts, including architecture. His own personality as a leader inclined him to be a patron of the arts, intellectual and cultural activities, as well as a believer of legal principles for social justice. Akbars policy of expanding territories was not Jahangirs priority because he gave more attention to managing the crises of rebellion in Mughal territory.

РАЗРАБОТКА ВОЕННО-ПОЛИТИЧЕСКИМИ ЛИДЕРАМИ БЕЛОГО ДВИЖЕНИЯ КОНЦЕПТУАЛЬНЫХ ОСНОВ ВОСПИТАНИЯ ОФИЦЕРСТВА В ДУХЕ ЛЮБВИ К РОДИНЕ

The author uses the methods of historical study to consider the specifics of the approach of the White movement leaders to educating their officers in the spirit of love for the Motherland during the civil war in Russia in the beginning of the XX century. On the base of the analysis of historical sources, the author traces the continuity of the ideological base of the White movement from the military-patriotic education of tsarist Russia, but also distinguishes its subjective and objective features.

AGRARIAN REFORM OF P. WRANGEL IN THE SOUTH OF UKRAINE (1920)

The purpose of the article – to reveal that P. Wrangel's agrarian reform was widely understood as a system of measures that influenced the socio-economic situation in the countryside, the socio-political activity of the peasantry. The research methodology is based on such principles of historical knowledge as scientificity, historicism, objectivity, system analysis, etc., as well as on the application of general scientific, special historical study methods. The scientific novelty consists in the following: it has been justified that P. Wrangel did not limit his agrarian reform by the redistribution of land among peasants. He considered as its cornerstone the intensification of agriculture as an industry, improving the material wealth of peasants, transforming the peasantry into a leading social class. Being aware of the need for quality changes aimed at intensifying agriculture as a sector of the economy, P. Wrangel worked in this direction. In our estimation of efficiency of this work, in our opinion it is necessary to consider the conditions under which it was carried out. Despite the adverse circumstances, P. Wrangel's agrarian reform in southern Ukraine was fruitful. Its conduct, firstly, testifies that the Commander-in-Chief took care of improvement of land management, improvement of agro-technical cultivation of land, provision of peasant farms with agricultural machinery, seed fund, working cattle, etc. Secondly, the measures taken by the government officials did not seek to exacerbate the authorities' relations with the peasantry. On the contrary, every effort was made to minimize confrontation in the countryside. Thirdly, the agrarian reform was based on the principles of state protectionism of the peasantry. The Conclusions. Among the clear achievements of P. Wrangel's agrarian reform there were the following results: 1) the pro-peasant character of agrarian legislation and agrarian reform in general, aimed at preserving livestock, including breeding stock, providing peasant farms with agricultural machinery and equipment, seeds etc.; 2) the complimentary attitude of the peasantry of the South of Ukraine to the activities of the White civil authorities during the sowing, harvesting, normalization of lease relations, intensification of the agrarian sector as an economic sector; 3) during the time of implementation of agrarian reform in the South of Ukraine, 3145 peasants became the real owners of the land, which was confirmed by the relevant legal documents, according to which 66 725 des. of land were secured into a private ownership. None of the governments that took part in the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917 – 1921 achieved this.

ПРАВАСЛАВНАЯ ЦЕРКОВЬ ГРУЗИИ И ПАНДЕМИЯ КОРОНАВИРУСА

2020 was unusual for entire world. Corona Virus was announced as a pandemic by the World Health Organization and it became the key challenge for the world. Unexpectedly pandemic changed a political, economic, social life, it also put the issue of changing religious rituals up on the agenda. It made a dramatic change, changing not only lifestyle thoroughly but also it influenced public values and fundamental principles. Georgia, as the part of the global space was not able to avoid the problem. In order to prevent dissemination of the virus, Georgian government closed the borders of Georgia for the foreign citizens, it announced the emergency condition, closed trading facilities, stopped functioning of the enterprises, enforced curfew, prohibited gathering of more than three people and set charges for violation of the rule. For prevention of the virus, different confessions were forced to introduce changes in their services. Georgian Orthodox Church was an exception together with several churches of the world (Poland, Greece, Serbia). The patriarch of Georgia decided not to change the service rule despite high risk. It became the reason for excitement and criticism of clergymen, theologists, politicians and citizens in general. There were different positions and opinions inside the church itself, among the clergymen. The society had different opinions regarding the fact. This step made by the church was evaluated by some people as anti-social and anti-human decision. In the country, where the belief and traditions are closely connected, change of eucharist rule and close churches for the prayers are very sensitive issue. This is why due to respect to the Georgian church and Synod, as well as for high interest of the society, we decided to learn problem deeper. Actually, the following questions were asked, like what was the cause for the decision? Why the opinion of the churchmen, as well as parish and society were divided? What is the role of the state in solution of such problem? The article is focused on two key problems, one is receiving eucharist by the same spoon and the issue of social distance in the churches. In order to learn the issue deeper we got known with the opinion of the clergymen and theologist. The Goal of the Study: Objective assessment of the latest developments, understanding relationship between the state and the church, analyzing the issue of freedom of belief. The Methodology of the Study: The study is mainly based on the historical study method: description, comparative-historical method, empirical analysis, causal-historical analysis. Observation of the publications, analysis of the statements and opinions of the Patriarch of Georgia and high-ranking officials of the Patriarchate, as well as state officials, the representatives of the opposition parties, checking of the disseminated information and sources detecting method. Analysis of the governmental and opposition TV data and official versions.

Some Issues Of Qualification Of The Involvement Of A Minor In Antisocial Behavior

This article is aimed at strengthening the protection of the rights and freedoms of minors. The method of historical study is very helpful in revealing the content of criminal law norms, in fully understanding the essence of the existing criminal law prohibitions in them. By retrospectively observing a certain phenomenon, that is, when and how it appeared, what stages it went through in development, it is possible to explain its current state and determine its future development. The subject of the article is a theoretical analysis of scientific and practical problems of criminal liability for involving a minor in antisocial behavior, the norms of criminal law of the Republic of Uzbekistan and foreign countries for criminal involvement of a minor in antisocial behavior, scientific work on the problem under study. as well as case law on the specified category of crimes.

Gerakan Politik Sarekat Islam di Jawa Tahun 1916-1921

Sarekat Islam is a movement organization that has a very important role in fighting for independence of Indonesia. In the beginning, this organization was established to overcome only economic problems in the lives of indigenous people. As it develops, this organization also turned into a political organization that aims to realize self-government. This research is an analysis of political movements conducted by Sarekat Islam which began from 1916 to 1921. The research uses a historical study method of heuristic, critic, interpretation, and historiography. This study uses a theory of structure of political opportunity with a science approach that is political sociology approach. The result of this study indicates that the Sarekat Islam political movement was realized with a national congerss held to discuss various political problems including the formation of a Volksraad, the defense of the Dutch East Indies (Indie Weerbaar) and others. Until in the end, Sarekat Islam divided into Sarekat Islam Merah dan Sarekat Islam Putih.

Analysing the relationship between organisational strategies and effectiveness of human capital management practices

There has been a growing interest among scholars in organisational capitals in recent years. Using the field-descriptive method, this study reports a model for comparative analysis of challenges of organisational strategies in two private and public sectors of Iran's petrochemical industry and its impact on effectiveness of human capitals management practices. Historical study method was used to collect theoretical subjects and field study method was applied to answer to research questions and confirm or reject research hypotheses. There exists a significant difference between effectiveness level of human capitals management practices in areas of organisational strategies in two private and public sectors of petrochemical industry. Analysing the impact of existing challenges of organisational strategies on effectiveness of human capitals management practices shows the reversed relation among the existing challenges of organisational strategies and effectiveness of human capitals management practices in this regard. These results offer implications for future human capital practices inclusive of a proposed comprehensive model of Human Capital Management Strategy as a systemic remedy.

PERAN SULTAN SULAIMAN AL-QANUNI DALAM MEMBANGUN KEJAYAAN KESULTANAN TURKI UTSMANI PADA ABAD KE-16

The writing attempts to describe the reign of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Sultan Sulayman al-Qanuni. During the reign, he was able to bring glory to the Ottoman Ottoman Empire. One of the ways that is done by making policies (legislation) which is very appropriate and able to change the order of the Ottoman Turkish Sultanate system becomes more controlled and neat administratively. This research uses library research approach with historical study method through four stages, namely data collection (heuristic), verification, interpretation, and writing (historiography). Sultan Sulaiman Al-Qanuni is a leader who has a very strong soul, especially in building the glory of the Ottoman Empire Sultanate. So he was given the title "Solomon The Magnificent" which means "Great Sulaiman Sultan". The more significant policy that Sultan Suleiman Al-Qanuni has made is to regulate legislation that is capable of making the Ottoman Turkish Sultanate system more systematic. The implications of all policies of Sultan Sulaiman Al-Qanuni able to influence in the wider community, even throughout Europe. Keywords: Keywords: Ottoman Turkey, Sulaiman Al-Qanuni, Power, Civilization

Role and Contribution of Ottoman Science Institutions in the Development of Muslim Civilization: Spotlight on 16th Century

This study aims to discusses the role and contribution of Ottoman science institutions in the development of Muslim civilization in the 16th century CE. The writing of this article is focused on science institutions related to medicine and astronomy, encompassing hospitals, Suleymaniye Medical Madrasah, Office of Chief Physician, Office of Chief Astronomer, Muwaqqithana and Istanbul Observatory and analyses the role and contribution of these institutions. This is a qualitative study based on the methods of historical study and content analysis. Textual research data is gathered and analysed using a descriptive approach. Our findings suggest that Ottoman science institutions in the 16th century played an important role in developing science and technology based on the innovations developed by said institutions, such as new medicines, musical therapy in dentistry and new astronomical equipment. The importance of this study lies in the many innovative contributions by Ottoman scholars to the world community, particularly in the fields of medicine and astronomy, which led to development of civilization.

PEMANFAATAN PETILASAN MACAN PUTIH SEBAGAI SUMBER BELAJAR SEJARAH LOKAL BAGI GENERASI MUDA

This study aims to (1) determine the strategy that is used in the White Tiger Petilasan utilization as a source of learning local history to the younger generation, (2) know how learning methods are applied in the functioning Petilasan White Tiger as a source of learning local history. This study is a qualitative research, with research steps such as (1) the determination of the study design, (2) determining the location of the research, (3) determination of informants, (4) data collection, (5) the validity of the data that consists of triangulation data and triangulation methods, (6) the data analysis. The results showed that three schools located near Petilasan, SMAN 1 Rogojampi, SMA PGRI Rogojampi and SD Negeri 1 Macan Putih, Macan Putih Petilasan utilize as a source of learning local history. How utilization is to use contextual learning strategies (contextually Teaching Learning) with several learning methods. Teachers SMAN 1 Rogojampi, SMA PGRI Rogojampi using the browsing environment and purely historical study method. While teachers SD Negeri 1 Macan Putih using the method of socialization in Petilasan use this as a learning resource.

Investigando o termo ‘enunciação’ para uma história das ideias linguísticas

The history of Linguistics has been written in various ways. Linked or not to concepts from other areas, few scholars of Linguistics thought about their own criteria of historicity (NORMAND, 2009). With this issue in mind, we aim at discussing two methods of historical study of the word 'enunciation’ underlining the work of Aya Ono (2007) and Simone Delassale (1986). The first paper explores the historicity of the word ‘enunciation’ internal to the work of a linguist. The second, the historicity of 'enunciation’ in various sources. We will try to demonstrate the contributions of each work to the study of the history of linguistics. Our methodological procedures are based on the elaboration of theoretical notions by Normand (2009a). We conclude that the work of Delesalle (1986) represents an opportunity of reflextion to the linguist at present times, because it leads us to think of the figure of a narrator-linguist in a 'polyphonic' way.

INSIGHT INTO RELEVANT TO THE EU GLOBALISATION AND MARKET DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR

The purpose of the study is to analyse the topicalities and specifics of globalisation and market development processes since the Second World War until the end of the 20th century, in the context of their impact on urgent problems related to development of economic thought. To achieve the aim, the following tasks were fulfilled: 1) to study historical events related to development of the market economy; 2) to analyse the changes, caused by historical processes, in economic theory under the conditions of globalisation; 3) to find solutions related to research problems in the area of economic thought. The following methods were used in the study: monograph, historical study, synthesis and analysis, logical-constructive method, analysis of historical facts and statistical data. In the study of historical events, mainly on the basis of the monograph and historical study methods, the attention was, generally, paid to different changes the world had experienced since the Second World War: such as the development of globalisation processes, having taken their beginning already during the Second World War; the more and more rapid rotations, taken up by globalisation processes; the sharp getting up of market regulation; the more and more visible role played by anew established cross border political, financial, military and economic organisations. In the analysis of the changes in the economic theory the attention was, on the basis of synthesis and analysis, logical-constructive method and others, paid mainly to the domination of the cyclic economic development, being recognised, in the economic theory, as a self-evident norm also under conditions of the globalisation; to the beginning of domination of political relations over economic regularities in the society; to the tendency of endeavour to explain the economic relations with mathematical-statistical methods (Keiss, S., 2012: 52; Krilovs,L., 2003:151-155). As a result of the research, the authors have tried to find ways how to substantiate the changes in economic theory and in the policies of the countries of market economy under the conditions, when there takes place a declaratively propagated support to the liberalism and to democratic values, but, in the real life, a tendency of a growing dominance of regulation of the market processes may be observed. Latvia, as a post-socialism country, is especially interested in finding of the necessary attitude in this context. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5755/j01.eis.0.8.6832

Labouring against the grain of progress: Women's reforestation work in British Columbia, 1960–1975

This article examines the history of women's reforestation work in British Columbia (BC), Canada in the 1960s and 1970s. Throughout the era, white working-class women were employed by the government to plant trees on cut-over land. Women's work in BC's forestlands is often obscured by a triumphal discourse that celebrates the rise of white, middle-class contractors and workers as a progressive force in the forestry sector. Through oral histories and interviews with members of the British Columbia Forest Service and the women employed on government planting projects, this article discusses the social positioning of women within the history of reforestation. Building on the work of Geoff Mann and a number of feminist interventions, the article examines how the categories of ‘quality’ and ‘quantity’ played an ideological role in framing women as an atavistic presence in the industry. Finally, following Walter Benjamin's method of historical study, the article rethinks common negative portrayals of women's labour, through considering the progressive moments found within their work and the challenges the women posed to post-war gendered norms of life and work.

반사회적 의식이 반영된 시대복식의 특성에 관한 연구 - 18세기 상-뀔로뜨와 1960, 70년대 히피 스타일의 비교를 중심으로 -

The style of a dress allows important characterization of an era since they reflect contemporary politics, society, culture and arts. Within a same category, period costumes develop into styles that reflect specific consciousness. The research method and the scope of the study are as follows: the research adopts a historical study method and a comparative research from a microscopic point. The scope includes resistance costumes that proceed with sans-culotte that comprises of the resistance party during the 18th French Revolution (1783-1799), and also a Hippy style which was popularized during the 1960s and 1970s for its anti-war movement. We researched both similarities and differences of design factors reflecting resisting consciousness in costumes that affected costume characteristics related to their socio-cultural background. Sans-culotte and the Hippie style reflect a common denominator in anti-social resisting customs. First, they show common characteristics that combine fashion trends of resistant element and design features. Second, they have common features which are the characteristics of deviation. On the other hand, these two customs also present a discriminative denominator in anti-social resisting customs. In the case of sans-culotte, they tend to symbolize confrontation by dividing into two equal parts: the old and new mode. Sans-culotte confronts the conventional mode and promotes practical costume styles based on justice standpoints. First, hippies pursue an exposition of individual emotions that disclose internal meanings of love and desire. Second, they focus on subjective characteristics and chase after masteries and pleasures by expressing intensity. Third, it extends and develops folk costumes from many countries that reveal ethnic trends. Therefore, this research compares and contrasts different changes in the fashions of revolutionary periods, and aims to recognize the relationship between design and costume characteristics, thus contributing to the predictions of future changes in fashion.

Accounting, gender and history: the life of Minna Canth

This article introduces Minna Canth, one of the earliest businesswomen in Finland, although better known as a pioneer of Finnish realistic literature and champion of the women's movement. The historical study method is applied together with a narrative and interpretative approach to examine accounting and gender based on Minna Canth's bookkeeping and correspondence in the 1880s. Minna Canth's story brings together three realities that normally do not meet: women's everyday life, business, and literature. The study introduces an early female merchant who was knowledgeable about financial issues and managed her own business affairs independently. An intended contribution of this study to accounting and gender research is to extend the current knowledge about women's roles in the nineteenth century and their use of accounting at that time in history.

A Multi-dimensional Approach to Research on Ancient Science

The Way and the Word exemplifies a method of historical study that makes sense of the past in ways that more conventional approaches frequently fail to do.1 Historians of Asian science tend, for instance, to look at computational techniques and the social relations of mathematicians as distinct areas of inquiry. Putting something in context is, as one author after another reminds us, a good thing, but doing so is a voluntary matter of connecting two things that exist quite separately. Scholars rarely ask what unifies a problem’s philosophical, technical, social, economic, political, literary, and other dimensions. Choosing one of these dimensions to study, ignoring the rest because one is not a specialist in them, is more usual. The cost is often a stunted understanding. The Way and the Word is an experiment in doing away with foreground and context, and studying the emergence of science in each culture as what I call a cultural manifold. Cultural manifolds include not only the various dimensions of a complex phenomenon, but also the interactions that make all of these aspects into a single whole. That whole includes how people make a living, their relation to structures of authority, what bonds connect those who do the same work, how