History Of Science Research Articles

When Scientists Disagree

In science studies, history and philosophy of science, and history of science, scientific controversies are supposed to reveal how science works. Controversy, in this sense, is not primarily a research object but a conceptual tool developed to model current or past events in the sciences with the aim of capturing the very nature of science. Treating controversy as a conceptual tool, I discuss which aspects of scientific disagreements are highlighted by this tool, which aspects are relegated into the background, and what remains unconsidered or ignored. I present my observations through the example of the discussion of color vision in fish and bees between physiologist Carl von Heß and zoologist Karl von Frisch in the 1910s and early 1920s. I discuss four points, each of which plays a particular role in controversy research: (1) the interest in the end and not the beginning of controversies, (2) the typical presentation of a controversy as a clearly defined confrontation of positions, (3) the assumption that controversies follow rules, and (4) the idea that controversies must begin almost automatically when certain conditions are met. As Helga Nowotny emphasized, in case of disagreement, non-controversy seems just as plausible as open contradiction.

NATURAL SCIENCE TEXTBOOK AND THE CURRENT PREPAREDNESS OF TEACHERS IN TEACHING THIS SUBJECT

In developed European countries, the content of Natural Science (Science) has played a significant role in national curricula over the past thirty years. Understanding the concept of Natural Science (Science) content, which is an important component of scientific literacy and integrates natural sciences, history of science, sociology of science, and philosophy of psychology, is essential for teachers and students to be scientifically literate. This understanding involves a combination of key structures of scientific activity and the knowledge of natural science, which are necessary for scientific literacy [1,2,3].

Historical Geographies of Engineering: Knowledges, Practices, Identities

ABSTRACTDrawing on established scholarship in the historical geography of science, the history of technology and science and technology studies, this paper argues for the significance of an historical geography of engineering. Large‐scale and transformative infrastructure projects have been a common focus in historical geography, however comparatively little attention has been paid to the engineers responsible for designing and implementing them. This paper reviews recent work which has foregrounded engineers and their work across diverse times and places. It conceptualises engineering in three ways: as a form of knowledge about the world that is connected to, but distinct from, science; as a set of practices undertaken in specific locations; and as an identity that, since the profession's origin in the 18th century, has enabled individuals to claim expertise in relation to environmental management and therefore exert power over land, territory and people. The article reviews geographical inquiry that foregrounds these perspectives on engineering and suggests future directions for research in the field.

I. I. von Felbiger and the creation of the European school education system

Introduction. One of the most important conditions for the success of any type of activity is its systematic nature. This statement fully applies to such an important area of the spiritual life of society as education. The creation of the educational system in Europe is associated with the name of the outstanding teacher-reformer Johann Ignaz von Felbiger (1724-1788), who vividly proved himself as a scientist, founder of educational institutions, author of important documents and textbooks that for many decades determined the content and nature of schooling in European countries and in Russia. Materials and methods. The author uses the following research methods: analysis of historical and pedagogical literature, biographical and historical methods, an axiological scientific approach to the study of the value content in the activities of I. I. von Felbiger. The work uses publications by foreign and Russian authors. Results. The period of I. I. von Felbiger's life and his organizational activities coincided with the age of Enlightenment, which led to an increase in interest among a significant part of the population of many European countries in science and its practical use in the interests of society, as well as to the problems of educational development. I. I. von Felbiger acted as the organizer of educational institutions designed for various groups the population and the levels of training of students. He substantiated the idea of the first public school system in history and partially implemented it into practice. Over time, this system, which in some countries was called Sagan, became generally accepted in Europe. His ideas were developed in the process of creating a school education system in the Russian Empire. Discussion. Von Felbiger's activities in the field of education were multifaceted. He carried out the practical management of the educational institution, was a teacher, the general commissioner for education of the whole country, and finally, he created valuable legislative acts that received approval from the monarchs and ordinary teachers. He also authored methodological and educational manuals for teachers that corresponded to the current needs of society. Conclusion. The famous educational reformer von Felbiger left a vivid mark on the history of European science and culture. He went down in the history of pedagogy as the creator of the Sagan school system. The history of his life and work, as well as the genesis of the first education system he created in Europe, deserve further comprehensive study.

Far Eastern cemeteries as an object of study

The article is devoted to the actualization of the study of Far Eastern cemeteries as objects of historical value, forming and preserving national memory. The selected topics have an interdisciplinary character, including historical, cultural, legal, urban planning, philosophical and other aspects, and differ not only in scientific, but also in social significance. At the regional Far Eastern level, there is practically no comprehensive approach to the study of churchyards, including within the framework of the auxiliary historical discipline of necropolystics (or necropoleology), although its importance cannot be overestimated. The Far Eastern cemeteries, the earliest burials of which date back to the second half of the XIX century, contain a whole layer of information concerning different epochs, the peculiarities of social life, economics, culture, the style of tombstones, the content of epitaphs, biographies of historical figures. A special place is occupied by disappearing and partially lost cemeteries, which are not officially objects of cultural heritage, but are of scientific and local history value. The main research methods used were the historical-comparative method, which allows to identify similarities and differences in graves of different eras; the chronological method, which makes it possible to consider the evolution of churchyards through the prism of temporary changes, and a number of others, taking into account the principles of historicism, objectivity and systematic analysis. Microhistoric and cultural hikes, the theory of everyday life were involved. The paper examines some features of burial sites, the main milestones of their study, characterizes a number of Far Eastern churchyards, important from the point of view of scientific analysis and preservation of national memory, substantiates domestic cemeteries as complex monuments with historical value, forming and preserving the collective memory of the people. The conclusions drawn in the article suggest that the study of Far Eastern cemeteries remains sketchy and unsystematic, although this is a promising area of regional historical science that can significantly complement and enrich it with new data, generalizations and meanings. Scientific research should go in parallel with public activities to preserve existing churchyards, restore tombstones and perpetuate the memory of people who have left a significant mark on the life of the region and the country as a whole.

Yeletsky gorodnichy Egor Alexandrovich Kholodovich and the study of antiquities in the province in the middle of the XIX century

For the first time, the biography and scientific contribution of E. A. Kholodovich to the study of the ancient history of Yelets in the Oryol province are being investigated. In the period 1835-1849 he served as a mayor, became interested in local history. In the Oryol Provincial Gazette for 1840, his note "On the antiquities of the city of Yelets" appears. The note consisted of a preface and six small sections, each of which corresponded to the description of the ancient object: 1) The Icon of the Kazan Mother of God; 2) The Image of the Appearance of the Mother of God to Tamerlane; 3) The Holy Gospel; 4) A chapel and a stone pillar with icons; 5) Talim Prison; 6) Six cast-iron cannons; 7) An underground passage. This information will be widely used by local historians in the future, starting from the middle of the XIX century, but without mentioning the original author. The article is based on archival materials that made it possible to restore the basic biographical information, the circumstances of service in Yelets and the probable motivation in the local history studies of E. A. Kholodovich. The intellectual environment of the communication with experts in the history of the city is being investigated, attempts are being made to establish the sources of information the author received. The results of the research allow us to say that the only known scientific publication by E. A. Kholodovich for the provincial newspaper is based on the unreleased information from the statistical description of Yelets in the 1820s. Their content corresponds to old-time records typical of the time of the formation of historical science in the province at the end of the XVIII – first half of the XIX centuries. The topic of antiquities is considered through the prism of a detailed description of the remains of the fortress, underground passages, customs, the history of monasteries and temples, and brief historical legends. The material clearly demonstrates the positive impact of the state policy on the conduct of provincial statistical descriptions on the formation of local history research in the province.

Multi-analytical study for the art historical science: The mystery of the “Portrait of a young man in a wide-brimmed hat with a feather”

In this work, we performed a comprehensive spectroscopic analysis of the “Portrait of a Young Man in a Wide-Brimmed Hat with a Feather” authored by an unknown artist and housed in the National Art Museum of the Republic of Belarus. Previously this portrait was a part of the Myatlev collection (St. Petersburg, Russia). Extensive analysis, including microscopic examination, X-ray radiography, luminescent studies, and complex multi-analytical studies of the chemical composition of art materials allowed us to suggest the dating and attribution of the painting. Laser-induced breakdown spectrometry (LIBS), Fourier transform Infrared spectrometry (FTIR) and Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) were also used. Gold nanoparticles in toluene were used to enhance the signal of Raman scattering, enabling the unambiguous identification of pigments within the painting layers of the historical object.Moreover, we discovered the portrait of another person on the same canvas under the top layer of paint. A comparative analysis of grounds and painting materials did not reveal significant differences in the technological features of both images. Therefore, we can assume that both portraits were created in the same historical period and followed the traditions of the same art school. Lead white, bone black, red, yellow and brown ochres as well as lapis lazuli were identified as the pigments.The results obtained do not contradict to art critics hypothesis that the underlying painting is the portrait of King of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth11The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth formally known as the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was established as a single entity by the Union of Lublin in 1569. It existed until 1795. Wladislaw IV Vasa created in the first half of XVII century. Then, it became the base for a new painting, which might be a self-portrait of the king’s illegitimate son Count Vasenau and was created in the middle of XVII century.

A Perspective on K-12 AI Education

Artificial intelligence (AI), which enables machines to learn to perform a task by training on diverse datasets, is one of the most revolutionary developments in scientific history. Although AI, and especially deep learning, is relatively new, it has already had a transformative impact on medicine, biology, transportation, entertainment, and beyond. As AI changes our daily lives at an increasingly fast pace, we are challenged with preparing our society for an AI-driven future. To this end, a critical step is to ensure an AI-ready workforce through education. Advocates of beginning instruction of AI basics at the K-12 level typically note benefits to the workforce, economy, and national security. In this complementary perspective, we discuss why learning AI is beneficial for motivating students and promoting creative thinking and how to develop a module-based approach that optimizes learning outcomes. We hope to excite and engage more members of the education community to join the effort to advance K-12 AI education in the United States and worldwide.

Venus’s phases: evidence supporting heliocentrism

Abstract The affirmation of the Copernican system marks a milestone in the history of science. However, in educational settings, theoretical and philosophical aspects are often prioritized, with less attention paid to the empirical and quantitative data supporting heliocentrism. The discovery of Venus phases by Galileo Galilei through his early telescope represents a compelling piece of evidence corroborating the Sun-centered model. A renowned drawing published in Galilei's treatise ‘Il Saggiatore’ (1623) illustrates this phenomenon and the anti-correlation between phases and apparent diameter. The analysis of the illustration reveals precise quantitative information comparable in accuracy to that which can be extracted from contemporary astrophotography. Inspired by this result, the galileian discovery has been revisited and tailored into activities suitable for both high school and college teaching levels. These activities invite students to construct their own empirical evidence for heliocentrism by analyzing digital images and using interactive digital tools for image manipulation. The topic has also been proposed at the university level through more advanced analysis techniques. The common aim at each level is to engage students in a dynamic ‘learning by doing’ experience, replicating pivotal moments from the history of science and transforming a topic traditionally confined to the history of ideas into a living, interactive subject.

Geological (Dis)orientations: Training Sites, Storytelling, and Fieldwork in the Chilean Andes

This article explores place-based geological storytelling by examining the role of training sites in the geoscientific learning process. Based on ethnographic work conducted with geoscientists in the Liquiñe-Ofqui Geological Fault, I illustrate how sites located in the Chilean Andes have historically been used to practice geoscientific storytelling and to learn the language and theory of plate tectonics. Building on scholarship in STS and the history of science which has documented how plate tectonics and the associated paradigm shift changed the authority of field geology, I show how, rather than replacing fieldwork, place-based observations still play a central role in helping students gain a professional vision in geology. Reflecting on fieldwork training sites and geoscientists’ negotiated attempts to tell geological stories, this article speaks to the question: from where are the stories of the earth told?

Hidden histories of science and medicine: spirit mediumship and the ‘psychology without a soul’

Mental health professionals working with the dying and bereaved may occasionally feel that a belief in the mind’s persistence after death can function as an important coping device for some of their patients. To facilitate an unbiased reading of the empirical articles in this thematic issue, this essay therefore uses the history of a particularly contested area of ‘survival research’, spirit mediumship, to highlight widely forgotten but pivotal historical contexts and complexities which have failed to inform and balance standard academic receptions of empirical approaches to the mind’s hypothetic survival of death. After sketching diametrically opposed attitudes to mediumship by the founders of modern psychology, William James and Wilhelm Wundt, and psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler’s defences of research with mediums against the dismissive stance exemplified by Emil Kraepelin and Henry Maudsley, I conclude that standard interpretations of any open-minded scientific interest in mediumship and survival research as wishful thinking are asymmetrical and psychologically simplistic.

CANNABIS-DERIVED PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS: THERAPEUTIC, PHARMACOKINETIC AND CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS - A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW

Cannabis, a diverse compounded plant with a rich cultural and scientific history, has garnered significant attention due to its therapeutic and medicinal potential. The plant’s main active compounds, phytocannabinoids, notably Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), play important roles in its effects. Cannabis formulations range from traditional herbal preparations to modern innovations like edibles, sprays, topicals and vaporizable products. Achieving consistent potency, controlled release, and desirable pharmacokinetics remain a challenge. The article delves into its diverse formulations obtained along with its routes of administration. The article provides an overview of cannabinoids-based formulations, highlighting their significance in the context of emerging therapeutic and commercial opportunities, while acknowledging the need for further research to optimize formulations and maximize benefits.

Как можно понимать и как тогда практиковать историческую социологию

The essay presents its author's understanding of historical sociology, as well as a view on how to practice historical sociology. The preconditions that have been necessary for the emergence of historical sociology from the American intellectual tradition are the following: first, to overcome the ‘historiosophical ahistoricism’ of classical sociology and the ahistoricism of early empirical sociology in the United States. Second, the emergence of ‘social history’ in Europe under the influence of the Great War and the social sciences rejecting the idea of progress in its evolutionary and revolutionary interpretations. The essay provides a detailed investigation of the features of the ‘new historical science’ in comparison with its traditional counterpart, as well as exploring the similarities and differences between social history and historical sociology. Social history is considered as an intermediate link between the classical ‘sociology of history’ and American historical sociology. Following social history, historical sociology turns to comparative studies and quantitative methods, but at the same time does not abandon hermeneutics. Historical sociology presupposes a mutual weakening of the nomothetics of classical ‘grand theories’ and the ideography of traditional history. It also implies a full-fledged sociological investigation of historical phenomena using procedures accepted in empirical sociology, rather than the reinterpretation of historical research in sociological-theoretical terms. This results in the emergence of special (rather than general) processual and medium-level theories of social change based on historical facts. Historical sociology focuses on theoretical generalizations, which clearly distinguishes it from social history. The essay investigates the different approaches and purposes of using the comparative historical method - and the quantitative methods that complement it. In turn, their utilization leads to problems with the acceptance of their results by traditional historians specialized in a single country and on studying primary sources in the original. Instead of concluding, the author discusses his experience and participation in the institutionalization of historical sociology in Russia and points out the problems hindering it.

Epilogue

Abstract In this text, we discuss the challenges of researching historical methods of teaching science and we emphasize the importance of scientific materials held in academic collections as sources for understanding past teaching practices. As a case study, the text presents the scientific exchange between Germany and Russia in the nineteenth century, in which scientific instruments played a crucial role in communicating research practices across language boundaries. Because it is impossible to access scientific materials in their historical contexts and written sources rarely describe them, we advocate an interactive approach, convinced that engaging with scientific materials opens deeper insights into historical learning settings. With this approach, we take up the central role of materiality in knowledge creation, which has become established in recent decades and has driven a shift from text-based studies to material-based studies in the history of science. We propose to incorporate this change into the practice of teaching history of science.

The Natures of Digital Practices

Abstract Natural history collections play a vital role in biodiversity conservation, climate monitoring, and public health protection. However, challenges such as the loss of historical collections in museums, the crisis in taxonomic research, and the decline of sampling activities have compromised their integrity. Can digitisation offer solutions to these issues? On the one hand, this multidisciplinary Focus explores the role of digital practices in managing natural history collections and the contribution made by the humanities and social sciences. On the other, it examines the impact of ‘digital natural history objects’ on the history of science and museum studies. Topics include the digitisation process, the relationship between physical and digital objects, social aspects of digitisation projects, and potential biases in digital platforms. The contribution of archival sources to the study of natural history collections and decolonising practices are also discussed.

Navigating historiographical boundaries in the early Turkish Republican period: astrology, nationalism and Aydın Sayılı’s scholarship

This article explores two aspects of Aydın Sayılı’s scholarship: his focus on astrology and the impact of nationalist sentiments on his research. Sayılı, perhaps the first globally recognized PhD-holder in history of science, completed his degree at Harvard in the early 1940s and established Turkey’s first academic chair in the field at the University of Ankara. His works addressed both international and local audiences, advancing the history of mathematics and astronomy in Islamic societies; his scholarship on Islamic observatories is still highly esteemed today. This study highlights Sayılı’s integration of astrology into discussions in the history of science, especially with respect to Islamic observatories, a significant choice in an era when astrology and related disciplines received minimal attention in Turkish historiography. While his approach to this discipline diverges from that of prevalent twentieth-century Turkish scholarship, Sayılı’s motivations were deeply intertwined with the nationalist sentiments of the early Turkish Republic, emphasizing ‘Turkish contributions to science’. His scholarship invites further examination of the intricate relationship between the historiography of science and nationalism, as well as of twentieth-century historicizations of astrological studies.

A Theoretical Model for Measuring Upper Primary School Learners’ Scientific Reasoning Abilities in Science

One agenda of science instruction in primary schools is to develop learners’ scientific reasoning abilities and to equip them with the necessary twenty-first-century skills. Few studies have been conducted to develop measurement tools that aspire to assess primary school learners’ scientific reasoning. Most of these studies lack a theoretical model backing the development of these assessment tools. This paper introduces the model for measuring scientific reasoning (MMSR) as a theoretical model for guiding the development of assessment tools in the context of measuring upper primary school learners’ scientific reasoning. We first conceptualise scientific reasoning using a review of the literature and then present evidence to justify and validate this model for use in measuring primary school learners’ scientific reasoning abilities. Furthermore, using research in history and philosophy of science and science education, the MMSR model supports the development of assessment tools measuring learners’ patterns of scientific reasoning and also considering the nature of science across different contextual settings.

Epistemology and History of Science in the reflections of Evandro Agazzi

The merit of Evandro Agazzi’s epistemological reflection can be found in the following proposal: the history of science should be understood and studied as a meeting point between philosophical reflection and scientific research. Science and philosophy are thus closely united. In the words of Kant, science without philosophy is blind and philosophy without science is empty. Not only that: for Agazzi, the philosophy of science helps society as a whole to better understand the cultural (and human) value of science. Conversely, the history of science helps us to understand the perennially progressive nature of our knowledge. Why is this so? Because we can never disregard the intrinsic historicity of scientific knowledge.The historical approach to science also helps us to understand how scientific development always takes place within different choices. Conversely, epistemological reflection also helps historical research to better understand the development of our cognitive and technical heritage. On this basis, Agazzi worked - in collaboration with Ludovico Geymonat - to spread the institutional presence of the philosophy of science and the history of science (as well as mathematical logic) in universities, especially in Italy. Today, all of us are like dwarfs on the shoulders of giants, since we can better understand the connections between science and philosophy precisely because we can avail ourselves of Evandro Agazzi’s historical contributions.

Jewish Responses to Copernican Thought: A Conceptual Replication of John Hedley Brooke’s Chapter on Scientific and Religious Reform

This article explores how replication might work in the study of history through the presentation of a test case. Specifically, chapter 3 of historian John Hedley Brooke’s seminal book Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives (1991) was chosen for this experiment by an interdisciplinary team, as it is a cornerstone study in the history of science and religion. This article details the “conceptual replication” undertaken, that is, a study in which the research protocol of the original study was modified while the main research question stayed the same. Brooke studied the responses of Protestants and Roman Catholics to Copernican thought to examine the widely held belief that those who had recently gone through the Protestant Reformation would be more open to the new astronomy than Catholics. Our conceptual replication investigates what historians have written about Jewish responses to Copernican thought and how these findings impact the question of the relationship between religious and scientific reform. The preliminary conclusion of this replication study is that historians of the Jewish responses to the new astronomy seem to support Brooke’s view that such responses were determined by more than just theological or denominational considerations, since other factors (e.g., social ones) played a more constitutive role.

Introduction: Replicating John Hedley Brooke’s Work on the History of Science and Religion

In this introduction, we first briefly describe the replication crisis as it occurred primarily in the biomedical and social sciences. We then argue for the possibility and desirability of replication in the humanities, particularly historiography. After that, we clarify why we opted for the replication of John Hedley Brooke’s 1991 book Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives, specifically its third chapter. We elucidate why we chose to do both a direct and a conceptual replication. Finally, we lay out the procedures we used to conduct the two replication studies and look ahead to what is to come in this thematic section.