Hills Of Nepal Research Articles

Assessing the Impacts of Tillage and Mulch on Soil Erosion and Corn Yield

Conventional tillage practices have been regarded as the major reason for the loss of fertile topsoil in the sloping agricultural lands of the middle hills of Nepal. Reports on the effects of no-till and mulch on soil and corn yield in these regions are scarce, although these farming practices have been recommended to reduce soil erosion and increase crop yields. To assess the impacts of tillage (with +T, without −T) and mulch (with +M, without −M) on soil and soil nutrient losses, and corn yield, we conducted an experiment with five treatments: −T+M, −T−M, +T+M, +T−M, and bare fallow (BF), replicated four times each in an unbalanced complete random block design in Salyan district of Nepal. The results showed the presence of corn and no-till significantly lowered the soil losses. Losses of soil organic matter (SOM) and total nitrogen were also significantly reduced by the presence of corn, no-till, and mulch. However, no effects of mulch on soil losses, and no effects of tillage, mulch and corn on soil phosphorus losses were observed. Soil loss was found to be significantly and positively correlated with total seasonal rainfall, monsoon being the most severe season for soil erosion. While no-till and mulch did not affect corn height, cob height, and stover yield, no-till significantly increased the corn yield by 0.52 Mg ha−1 compared to conventional till. We confirm the synergistic interaction of mulch with tillage to reduce the losses of SOM and total nitrogen, and effectiveness of no-till to reduce the soil losses and increase the corn yield in the middle hills of Nepal. As this study is based on the results of two year’s data, long-term studies are required to identify the long-term impacts of no-till and mulch on soil losses and corn yield across the country.

Participatory ranking of fodders in the western hills of Nepal

Fodder is an important source of feed of the ruminants in Nepal. In the mid hills of Nepal, farmers generally practice integrated farming system that combines crop cultivation with livestock husbandry and agroforestry. Tree fodders are good sources of protein during the forage and green grass scarcity periods especially in dry season. Local communities possess indigenous knowledge for the selection of grasses and tree fodders at different seasons in mid hills of western Nepal. A study was conducted on the perception of farmers with respect to selection of fodder species in eight clusters in Kaski and Lumjung districts that range 900-2000 meter above sea level and receive average precipitation of 2000- 4500mm per annum. During the fodder preference ranking, farmers prepared the inventory of fodders found around the villages and nearby forests and selected top ten most important fodders in terms of their availability, palatability, fodder yield, milk yield and milk fat yield. In total, 23 top ranking fodders species were selected from the eight clusters. These fodder species were also ranked using pairwise ranking and weighted scoring methods and ranking was done on the basis of merit numbers obtained from weighted scores. The analysis revealed Artocarpus lakoocha as best tree fodder followed by Ficus semicordata, Thysanolena maxima and Ficus calvata. Similarly, the calendar of fodders trees for lopping season and the best feeding time was prepared on the basis of farmers’ local knowledge. This study suggests strategies for promotion of locally preferred tree fodder species and supplementing tree fodder with feed in different seasons depending on their availability and local preferences.

PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF MAIZE HYBRIDS UNDER RAINFED ENVIRONMENTS ACROSS MIDDLE HILLS OF NEPAL

Hybrid plays an important role in production and productivity increment of maize in potential pockets of middle hills. With an objective of identifying potential hybrids for middle hill environments, coordinated varietal trials on maize hybrids were conducted using randomized complete block design with three replications in various hill stations during summer of 2014/15 and 2015/16. During 2014/015, significant differences were recorded among the genotypes at Khumaltar and Pakhribas, where non-significant at Kabre for grain yield. Combined results of hill stations for grain yield revealed highly significant differences for genotypes, environments and, genotype by environment interactions indicating existence of variability among the tested genotypes at each site except at Kabre, and site specific nature of the tested hybrids was recorded. JM-8 produced the highest grain yield of 8356 kg ha-1 followed by RL-153/RL-105 (8006 kg ha-1), RML-95/RL-105 (7940 kg ha-1) and Khumal Hybrid-2 (7788 kg ha-1), respectively. In 2015/16, among the experimented hybrids highly significant grain yield differences were observed at Pakhribas and Khumaltar, and significant at Dailekh. Combined results over locations showed that RML-95/RL-197 (7365 kg ha-1) outyielded others and followed by RML-95/RL-105 (7010 kg ha-1), RML -151/RL-111 (6717 kg ha-1) and RML -87/RL-105 (6580 kg ha-1). Hybrids having higher grain yield in coordinated varietal trials will be promoted to Coordinated Farmers’ Field Trial on Hybrid and these hybrids might be the potential hybrids in future for potential pockets of middle hills of Nepal.

Bung: A traditional practice of potato cultivation in eastern hills of Nepal

Eastern hill region is one of the high potato producing areas of potato in Nepal. There are many traditional potato production systems existing in the region. Among them, 'Bung' and 'Lhose' are very popular systems. There are some under-proven views of naming to this unique cultivation practice. Field observations, key informants' interview, and group discussion were carried out at three sites of Okhaldhunga and Solukhumbu districts in July 2019 to explore the basic information on the bung system. The results of this investigation revealed that the century-old practice utilized marginal sloppy lands of mountains for cultivation of potatoes. Farmers left land fallow for 4-5 years to grow weeds and herbs. Thereafter, they slashed them with a thin layer of soil, stacked them over winter, burned and mixed with the soil making a raised pit. They planted 15-25 potato seed tubers into these pits depending upon the pit size. No additional fertilizer is added to these pits. No intercultural operations are carried out until harvesting. It was explained that the yield of potato from the bung was significantly higher 15-20 kg) than that of general local practice called lhose system (5-7 kg) from the area equivalent to Bung . Some interventions such as high yielding varieties, easy-to-handle equipment for bung preparation and introduction of fast-growing non-hazardous weeds, etc. were the demands of the farmers to increase profit from the bung system.

Brain Drain among the Gurung Community: A Diaspora Case Study

From the ancient time, Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi–religious, and multi-cultural country. This Himalayan country offers the world communities rich cultural heritage, natural beauty and legendary images with historical significance. It has always already been proven that the brave Nepali people sacrificed their lives for national unity, territorial integrity and the world peace. Despite its size, Nepal is rich with geographical, social, religious, and cultural diversities let alone ethnic variety with the perfect harmony. People observe various festivals and jatras (carnivals) during different seasons. The people from various castes and ethnic communities with various feasts and festivals, rites and rituals, and myths and ethnicity have made immense contribution to the nation building. Gurung is one of the rich indigenous ethnic communities in Nepal which in recent decades has suffered severe problem of brain drain because of an increasing trend of globalization as well as their recruitment in foreign armies. Descending from hills of Nepal, Gurungs as mercenary soldiers in foreign armies, including the British, Singapore and Indian have made immense contribution to the formation of Nepali Diaspora in Asia and beyond. Such an increasing trend of formation and expansion of the diaspora has adversely resulted in the brain drain from Nepal, a severe challenge to Nepal’s plan of progress and prosperity

Miocene flora from the Siwalik of Arjun Khola area, Nepal and its palaeoclimatic and phytogeographic implications

An extensive study on the plant fossils (leaf and fruit impressions/compressions) collected from the Miocene of Siwalik sediments, Arjun Khola area, western Nepal has been carried out. It revealed the existence of a variety of angiosperm plant taxa represented by 43 genera and 47 species belonging to 24 families. Of these, 34 species are reported for the first time from the studied area. Quite a number of fossils out of the entire lot, were described much prior to the present study from other represented by the Siwalik localities. Most of the leaf and fruit specimens are assignable to families of dicots but a single fossil leaf Clinogyne Salisb. has been assigned to the monocot family Marantaceae. The families which are highly represented in the assemblage are Fabaceae, Sapindaceae, Dipterocarpaceae and Annonaceae. Fabaceae which appeared in Upper Paleocene became a major component of the evergreen forest during middle Miocene. A majority of the families are generally represented by leaf forms but Sindora Miq. and Butea Roxb. ex Willd. of the Fabaceae and Terminalia L. of the Combretaceae are represented by fruits. Most of the fossil leaves in the assemblage showed large to medium size with drip tips, entire margins and apparent greater venation density. All the above characters collectively indicated the existence of tropical to sub–tropical type of vegetation during the Miocene all along the Himalayan foot hills of Nepal. Out of the identified specimens, the majority (more than 69%) resembled modern taxa, distributed in the tropical evergreen forests of different geographical regions of the world and recovery of similar looking fossil elements from the Arjun Khola area, indicated existence of similar forest types in and around the area at the time of Siwalik sedimentation. In contrast, the present day vegetation in and around the area is quite different from the past as it includes elements that generally constitute plants of dry deciduous forests. A number of plants migrated from south–east Asia to India via Myanmar and vice–versa. Consequently, many taxa, especially members of Dipterocarpaceae and Fabaceae, existing in south–east Asia in the Paleogene appeared on the Indian subcontinent and Nepal in the Neogene. Phytogeographical data also suggests that taxa flourishing in the Himalayan foot–hills during Siwalik sedimentation have migrated elsewhere in modern times possibly towards south and southeast in search of favourable conditions for luxuriant growth.Present day distribution of all the recovered species from the Siwalik Foreland Basins of Arjun Khola area shows that they are found today in the tropical forests of North–east India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and Malaysia where favourable climatic conditions exist and only little amount of taxa are found to grow presently in the Himalayan foothills. Thus, it may infer that a fair change in floral composition has taken since the Miocene. The nearest living relative (NLR) method of palaeoclimate construction suggests that the Arjun Khola area enjoyed a tropical climate having Mean Annual Temperature (MAT) 22–28ºC and Mean Annual Precipitation (MAP) 2200–3200 mm during the deposition of the sediments.

Landslide Hazard Mapping: GIS Based Susceptibility Assessment of Leoutikhola Watershed, Dhankuta, Nepal

This article examines the landslide hazard mapping in Leoutikhola watershed of Dhankuta district, eastern hills of Nepal. The hills are regarded as one of the most vulnerable areas in the world. The area is prone to different types of natural hazards such as landslide, debris flow, gully erosion, mass wasting, and flooding. Various studies pointed out biophysical and socioeconomic factors are more responsible to landslide hazards in the hill-slope environment. This paper argues that the rainfall intensity, unscientific methods of cultivation and lack of environment friendly developmental activities in steep slope are some of the major driving factors to landslide in the Leoutikhola watershed area. Leoutikhola watershed area has been suffering from different types of natural hazards such as landslide, debris flow, gully erosion, mass wasting and flooding. Field verification and satellite imageries are the major sources for the information to analyze. Due to its fragile and very weak geological condition, geomorphic hazard is considered more common than other types of hazards which lose massive lives and property in the study area. The field observation and local people perception indicate a large amount of budget required to mitigate natural hazards in this area especially for landslide. In this context, this paper attempts to portray the landslide hazard zonation and susceptibility mapping correlated with various factors. For this purpose, bivariate statistical index and Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) tools are used to calculate weighted values. The overall parameters indicate that in the series (-4.2 to 4.58) of five different hazard zones like very low, low, moderate, high and very high. The paper concludes that hazard determination calculated values indicate to 4.2 to -2.09, -2.09 to -1.0, -1.0 to-0.05, -0.05 to 1.24 and 1.24 to 4.58 respectively in the range of quartile series.

Revisiting the morphophonology of Thangmi: a Tibeto-Burman language of Nepal

This article revisits the morphophonology of Thangmi, a Tibeto-Burman language spoken in Nepal by a community group of the same name whose grammar and lexicon I was involved in documenting from 1996 onwards. The Thangmi (Nepali Thāmī) are an ethnic group who number around 30,000 and inhabit the central eastern hills of Nepal. The Thangmi are autochthonous to the upper reaches of Dolakhā district as well as to the eastern valleys of Sindhupālcok district, and their hitherto undocumented Tibeto-Burman language has two distinctly recognisable and mutually unintelligible dialects. Morphophonology (also known as morphophonemics) explores the interaction between morphology and phonology, and is predicated on a rigorous investigation of the phonological variations within morphemes that oftentimes mark different grammatical functions. While complex, Thangmi morphophonology lends itself to transparent interpretation, and this paper offers a modified analysis that builds on and develops from my earlier work (Turin 2012, 2005). Following a brief introduction to Thangmi segmental phonology, this article covers four aspects central to Thangmi morphophonology: the remnants of what may be a defunct liquid-nasal alternation, a brief overview of assimilation, a robust review of intervocalic approximants and finally a brief note on syncope.

Outmigration and Land-Use Change: A Case Study from the Middle Hills of Nepal

Outmigration has become a key livelihood strategy for an increasing number of rural households, which in turn has a profound effect on land management. Studies to date have mainly focused on migrant households, and there is limited literature on the differences in land management practices of migrant and nonmigrant households. This article drew on a current study to explore how outmigration affects land management practices in the context of rapidly changing rural communities and economics in the middle hills of Nepal. The data were collected in Lamjung District in western Nepal using a mixed-method approach. We found that underutilization of farmland is a more prominent phenomenon than land abandonment, with rural communities moving to less intensive farming. Importantly, the increasing underutilization of farmland is not just occurring among migrant households. There are a range of complex factors which influence land-use decisions and the subsequent outcomes for landscapes. A high risk of food insecurity in Nepal is likely to be exacerbated if the current trajectory of underutilization and abandonment of farmland continues. A suite of policy tools that can be selectively applied depending on the local context may be more effective than broad-brush national policies in tackling the underlying causes faced by rural communities.

Correlation coefficient and path analysis of rice (Oryza sativa) genotypes under reproductive drought stress in mid hill of Nepal

An experimental trial on eight rice genotypes was designed at the field of Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Lamjung, Nepal under randomized complete block design with three replications from June-November 2017 to study the nature and extent of correlation among yield and yield attributing characters under reproductive heat stress. Grain yield was significantly correlated with 1000-grain weight (r=0.838**), SPAD reading (0.815*), relative water content (0.803*), harvest index (0.771**) and number of filled grains per panicle (0.719*) suggesting an instrumental role of these traits as “selection criteria” for yield improvement. The grain yield had negative non-significant association with the number of non-effective tillers per m2 (−1.05), sterility % (−0.378) and panicle length (−0.52). While the positive non-significant association with grain yield was exhibited by flag leaf area (0.161), the number of effective tillers per m2 (0.173), number of tillers per hill (0.634), plant height (0.110) and days to 50% anthesis (0.63*). The path coefficient analysis of different traits revealed highest positive direct effect of the number of tillers per hill (0.7220) followed by days to 50% flowering, SPAD reading, number of filled grains per panicle, 1000-grain weight, panicle length and harvest index upon yield. However, relative water content, sterility %, the number of effective, non-effective tillers per m2 and plant height expressed negative direct effect upon grain yield. Relative water content (pivotal drought parameter) had negative direct effect upon yield but its residual positive effect was justified via other traits such as tiller number, SPAD reading, days to 50% flowering and number of filled grains per panicle.

Does Rural Water System Design Matter? A Study of Productive Use of Water in Rural Nepal

In Nepal, rural water systems (RWS) are classified by practitioners as single-use domestic water systems (SUS) or multiple-use water systems (MUS). In the rural hills of Nepal, subsistence farming communities typically use RWS to support income-generating productive activities that can enhance rural livelihoods. However, there is limited research on the extent of existing productive activity and the factors enabling these activities. This paper examines the extent of water-related productive activities and the factors driving these activities based on a study, undertaken between October 2017 to June 2018, of 202 households served from five single-use domestic water systems and five multiple use water systems in the mid-hills of Nepal. The research found that a majority (94%) of these households engaged in two or more productive activities including growing vegetables and horticulture crops, raising livestock, and producing biogas and Rakshi (locally-produced alcohol), regardless of the system design, i.e., SUS vs. MUS. Around 90% of the households were engaged in productive activities that contributed to over 10% of their mean annual household income ($4,375). Since the SUS vs. MUS classification was not found to be a significant determinant of the extent of productive activity, the households were reclassified as having high or low levels of productive activity based on the quantity of water used for these activities and the associated earned income. A multinomial logistic regression model was developed to measure the relative significance of various predictors of high productive activity households. Five dominant predictors were identified: households that farm as a primary occupation, use productive technologies, are motivated to pursue productive activities, have received water-related productive activity training, and have received external support related to productive activities. Whereas MUS are designed for productive activity, nearly every household in SUS communities was involved in productive activities making them ‘de-facto’ MUS. These results challenge the current approach to rural water provision that views SUS and MUS as functionally different services.

Genetic variability and cluster analysis of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes in foot hill of Nepal

To study the variability in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes and to identify the superior genotypes for yield and yield attributing traits, a field experiment was conducted during November 2017 to April 2018 at Kamalamai-04, Phant, of Sindhuli district, Nepal. Thirty wheat genotypes were experimented in Alpha lattice design with 3 replications. Observations for Days to heading, days to maturity, plant height, spike length, peduncle length, flag leaf area, no. of spikes/m2, no of grains/spike, weight of kernel/spike, thousand kernel weight, grain yield and biological yield were recorded and analysis was done at 0.05 probability level. High broad sense heritability associated with high genetic advance over mean was observed for the traits, grain yield (90%, 57.52%), peduncle length (93%, 52.58%), plant height (88%, 34%), number of grains/spike (83%, 39.76%), thousand kernel weight (80%, 36.75%), kernel weight/spike (77%, 51.76%) and number of spikes/m2 (77%, 39.16%) which indicated the predominance of additive genes action in controlling the expression of these traits. UPGMA dendrogram grouped thirty genotypes into distinct five clusters. Genotypes of cluster II can be utilized for development of superior cultivar through breeding program. Among all genotypes NL 1336 was highest grain yielder with thousand kernel weight, number of grains/spike and kernel weight/spike higher than local check WK 1204. Therefore, genotypes NL 1336, BL 4837, WK 2884 and BL 4833 can be utilized in breeding program as parents for improvement of wheat lines and development of high yielding wheat variety.

Study of the effect of tillage, seed priming and mulching on direct seeded rice variety sukhadhan-5 in mid hills of Nepal

Study of the effect of tillage, seed priming and mulching on direct seeded rice variety sukhadhan-5 in mid hills of Nepal

A review on status and profitability of large cardamom production in Nepal

Purpose: This study focuses on the status, strength and problems of large cardamom cultivation in Nepal and also identify profitability of large cardamom farming in Nepal.
 Research Methodology: Numbers of journal articles and reports were consulted as secondary source of data and conclusion were drawn and summarized.
 Results: Area and production of large caradamom in Nepal is increasing day by day and major production is concentrated in four eastern districts . B/C ratio of cardamom production varies from 1.70 to 3.06 and one fifth of household income in eastern hill of Nepal is attributed by Large cardamom. Price fluctuation, middleman and diseases are identified as major problems.
 Limitation: Lack of funding, less access to the data and documents are the limitations of study.
 Keywords: Status, B/C ratio, Profitability, Price fluctuation, Middleman
 How to Cite: Acharya, Mohan. (2019). A review on status and profitability of large cardamom production in Nepal. International Journal of Financial, Accounting, and Management, 1(1), 17-22.

Framework for Assessment of Eco-Safe Rural Roads in Panchase Geographic Region in Central–Western Nepal Hills

Rural roads are important for the communities in the hilly areas of Nepal as they introduce livelihood opportunities at the local level, and provide better access to the healthcare, education, and resources. Yet, most of the rural roads in Nepal are unplanned and non-engineered, and these roads are often closed for many months during and after the monsoon. Such roads require huge investments, especially post-monsoon, to clear debris and to keep them operational. In parallel, there is evidence that such roads lead to a large number of slope failures and accelerated sedimentation, which degrade the environment and ecosystem services. To remedy such roadside slope failures, eco-engineering practices were tested and demonstrated in partnership with three communities in the Panchase Region of the Nepal’s Central–Western hills. Eco-engineering is a hybrid approach, combining civil engineering works for drainage and slope stability, with the plantation of deep-rooted vegetation. It is one activity contributing to nature-based solutions (NbS) for the sustainable and long-term operation of the rural roads in the Panchase geographic region. This paper describes the inter-disciplinary and community-based research, monitoring, and evaluation methods applied, including the establishment of onsite demonstration plots and rhizotrons in which key performance indicator (KPI) analysis of plant species was performed. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of eco-engineering for reducing risk, while creating ecological co-benefits along rural roads (or eco-safe roads) in hilly areas. Based on this research, an “eco-safe rural road assessment framework” was developed, outlining the systematic process to be followed for the design of eco-safe rural roads for more sustainable road construction and maintenance. The eco-engineering practices which are being promoted by this framework were accepted by communities and could be further implemented by local government bodies and upscaled in other similar hilly areas around the country.

Gender, marriage, and the dynamic of (im)mobility in the mid-Western hills of Nepal

ABSTRACTThis paper explores the relationship between gender, marriage, and (im)mobility in rural hilly areas of mid-Western Nepal, showing how (1) the mobility of men is predicated on the ‘immobility’ of women, with marriage being key to the gendered dynamic of (im)mobility, (2) how the construction of hegemonic masculinity, exemplified by a figure of a successful international migrant, is inseparable from an ideal of femininity vested in the figure of a virtuous domesticated housewife. Examining different scales of mobility, the paper cautions against posing a rigid dichotomy between ‘mobile men’ and ‘immobile’ women, illustrating that the ‘left behind’ wives experience an impressive degree of everyday mobility in contrast to their internationally mobile husbands.

Estimation of Sediment Yield and Maximum Outflow Using the IntErO Model in the Sarada River Basin of Nepal

Soil erosion is a severe environmental problem worldwide as it washes away the fertile topsoil and reduces agricultural production. Nepal, being a hilly country, has significant erosion disputes as well. It is important to cognise the soil erosion processes occurring in a river basin to manage the erosion severity and plan for better soil conservation programs. This paper seeks to calculate the sediment yield and maximum outflow from the Sarada river basin located in the western hills of Nepal using the computer-graphic Intensity of Erosion and Outflow (IntErO) model. Asymmetry coefficient of 0.63 was calculated, which suggests a possibility of large floods to come in the river basin in the future whereas the maximum outflow from the river basin was 1918 m³ s−1. An erosion coefficient value of 0.40 was obtained, which indicates surface erosion of medium strength prevails in the river basin. Similarly, the gross soil loss rate of 10.74 Mg ha−1 year−1 was obtained with the IntErO modeling which compares well with the soil loss from the erosion plot measurements. The IntErO model was used for the very first time to calculate soil erosion rates in the Nepalese hills and has a very good opportunity to be applied in similar river basins.

Trifoliate Orange Seed Germination Enhancing Method in Mid Hill of Nepal

Trifoliate orange seedlings are used as rootstock for citrus crops due to cold hardiness and phytopthora disease tolerance. Nursery owners usually prepare raised bed in open field to sow seeds of trifoliate. The trifoliate seed production in government farms are very low compared to its demand due to limited number of fruiting trees. Further the germination percent in open nurseries are very low. Hence, production of grafted sapling is very much affected by unavailability of rootstock. Therefore, a study was carried out in National Citrus Research Program, Dhankuta to increase germination rate of trifoliate orange in the year 2016 and 2017. Trifoliate seeds were extracted from three stages of fruits (green mature, half yellow and full yellow) and sown at three dates (September 1st week, September 3rd week and October 1st week) at three raised bed (open field, 50-cm low plastic tunnel with or without sides open). The data on percentage seed germination was taken at 35, 50, 65, 90 and 210 days after seed sowing. The fruit maturity had no effect on germination percentage irrespective of sowing date and method of beds used. The date of sowing resulted significantly higher germination at earlier days but there was non-significant effect during final germination count. Plastic tunnel with open sides resulted 80% germination compared to 46% in tunnel side closed nursery. Hence, low plastic tunnel raised bed having open sides is the best option to raise trifoliate seed sown during 1st week of September to 1st week of October in agro-climatic conditions like Dhankuta.

Evaluation of Onion Genotypes for Growth and Bulb Yield in Mid Hill of Nepal

Experiments were conducted at Horticulture Research Division (HRD), Khumaltar, Lalitpur; and Horticulture Research Station (HRS), Kimugaun, Dailekh in 2017/18 to evaluate the high yielding open pollinated genotypes of onion in mid hills of both locations. Five onion genotypes namely AVON-1016, AVON-1027, AVON-1028, AVON-1052, AVON-1074 and AVON-1103 received from Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre were evaluated with local check variety and recommended variety Red Creole in both locations in randomized complete block design with 4 replications. The main objective of the experiment is to findout the high yielding open pollinated onion genotypes for mid hill condition.The pooled analysis of data over locations showed significant differences on plant height, neck diameter, bulb diameter, weight of bulbs and adjusted bulb yield per hectare. Introduced genotypes AVON 1027 (38.83 t/ha), AVON 1052 (31.97 t/ha) and AVON 1028 (31.48 t/ha) produced significantly higher yield than recommended and commercially cultivated check variety Red Creole (27.04 t/ha). Therefore the genotype AVON 1027 can be selected as the best genotype for growing in mid hills of Nepal

Landscape dynamics in the northeast part of Andhikhola watershed, Middle hills of Nepal

Depopulation and increasing greenery due to agriculture land abandonment is general scenario in many highlands of Nepal in recent decades. High resolution remote sensing image is used in land use change analysis. Recently, object based image analysis technique has helped to improve the land use classification accuracies using object based image analysis. Thus, this study was carried out with high resolution image data sources and innovative technique of land use classification in the northeast part of Andhikhola watershed, in the Middle Hill of Nepal. Increasing greenery due to agriculture land abandonment in the hill slope is the major land use change. Secondly, increasing built-up area in lowland along the highway is another. Decreasing hill farmers is the major drivers of converting cultivated land into vegetated area and increasing built-up area is due to urbanization and shift of rural people from hill slope to lowland and accessible area. Converting cultivated land into forest, shrubs and grassland is at marginal land and remote areas which is mostly controlled by altitude, slope gradient and slope aspect. Additionally, land suitability and accessibility are also other important controlling factors.