Hills Of Nepal Research Articles

Determinants of Households’ Adaptation Practices against Climate Change Impact on Off-farm Activities in Western Hill of Nepal

Climate change is one of the serious concerns which have a substantial impact in all areas of human civilization. Among these areas, agriculture is the worst hit sector. This study aims to analyze the determinants of households’ adaptation practices against climate change impact on off-farm activities in western hill of Nepal. It utilizes the data collected from six village development committees from three districts (Lamjung, Tanahu and Kaski) of western hill of Nepal. Out of 245793 Households 556 households were chosen for the survey. A systematic random sampling technique was used to select the respondents. Data was collected using pre-tested structured questionnaire through face to face interview with household head or a household member having age 45 years and above with residing in that locality since last 15 years. Binary logistic regression analysis has been carried out. Household size is only the matter for determining the households' adaptation practices for shifting to non-agricultural activities which is also the matter for temporary migration to another places. Education is the determining factor for changing the food consumption habit and temporary migration. Agriculture skill is the common determining factor for change in food consumption habit and shifting to non-agricultural activities. Sex and marital status are the major determining factors only for shifting to non-agricultural employment. Age is the significant predictor of temporary migration. Caste is also the major determining factor for changing the food consumption habit and temporary migration respectively.

Varietal evaluation of promising maize genotypes in mid hills of Nepal

The varietal evaluation of hybrid maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes with desired performance is one of the main objectives of maize breeding program. Fourteen hybrid maize genotypes were evaluated for 17 quantitative and nine qualitative traits in randomized complete block design with three replications at Sundarbazar, Lamjung, Nepal during May to September, 2019. The major objective was to identify superior genotypes based on genotypic and phenotypic variability, heritability, genetic advance, and correlation between grain yield and yield associated traits. We observed significant differences for 17 quantitative traits among the tested genotypes. Large variation was observed for grain yield among genotypes. Genotype RL-24-0/ RL-111 had the lowest yield (5.53 mt/ha) and Pioneer had the highest yield (11.98 mt/ha) whereas check variety Rampur Hybrid-10 yielded of 8.23 mt/ha. Grain yield showed highly significant positive correlations with stem girth (r= 0.67) and number of ears (r=0.6), but significant negative correlation with anthesis-silking interval (r= -0.55). The dendrogram grouped 14 genotypes into four clusters. Cluster I incorporated the highest number (five) of genotypes, which also had highest cluster mean (average yield of ~10 mt/ha) for grain yield. Traits namely test weight, ear aspect, anthesis-silking interval, number of ears, and tassel branching had high genotypic and phenotypic coefficient of variations, and heritability along with high genetic advances, indicating that these traits can be considered for maize breeding program.

Geo-textile in Riverbank-Embankment Protection from Flood Flow Erosion

Bank erosion of rivers, e.g. Bagmati, Burhi Gandak, Kosi and Kamla-Balan, all originating in the Himalayan hills of Nepal and flowing through the alluvial plains of North Bihar, is a chronic and common phenomenon. Cutting and deposition result in shifting or meandering of the river endangering the embankment, road, bridge, barrage, and countryside. Anti-erosion and maintenance require huge investment. The river Kamla-Balan faces bank erosion throughout its embanked length, but stretches at km 37 and 62 are highly unstable and vulnerable. This paper deals with the problem, presents the hydrological details responsible for the hazard, and demonstrates the effectiveness of supplementary geo-textile with conventional sand filter pitching to protect the soil and slope of the riverbank. Estimated flood discharge and velocity at 100 years of return period is nearly 2100 cumecs and 0.9 m/sec, respectively. Riverbed and bank material is represented by silt with d50 of 0.018 to 0.05 mm while 0.02 mm of silt may get eroded and transported by flow above 0.15 m/s. Launching apron is also required due to local scour. Model study test shows its suitability under various hydraulic conditions. Study reveals the effectiveness of woven type geo-textile reinforced revetment irrespective of cost and environmental consideration.

Digging for sand after the revolution: mafia, labor, and shamanism in a Nepali sand mine

This article offers a descriptive analysis of the working worlds of sand miners along a river near a city in the mid hills of Nepal. I argue that the sand mines in the region examined are effectively mafia run, but those who work in them do not resent their mafioso employers and instead view them as patrons who provide much-needed employment. Focusing on the everyday work practices in a sand mine, the article highlights workers’ understanding of sand mine work which range from viewing sand mines as spring boards to better-paid jobs in far-away countries to more negative renderings of sand mines as places where one risks to loose one’s own life. It further shows that workers mediate this tension between their attempts to achieve “big dreams” of upward socio-economic mobility and their fears of work accidents by engaging in shamanistic practices. In conclusion, I argue that the conditions of work in the sand mine examined cannot be understood without taking into account Nepal’s more recent political context. The article contributes to the literature on criminality, politics, and labor in South Asia.

Women’s approach to farming in the context of feminization of agriculture: A case study from the middle hills of Nepal

The outmigration of men has led to the feminization of rural communities where women are increasingly responsible for farming. This situation has been referred to as the ‘feminization of agriculture’. This article uses the theory of intersectionality to explore the feminization process in rural communities and to understand how women are changing their farming practices in the middle hills region of Nepal. Empirical data for this study was obtained using a mixed method approach which included a household survey, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions and field observation. The study found differential impacts of the feminization process among women, with the impacts for women largely defined by their caste/ethnicity, gender, class and socio-economic level. Outmigration was causing large changes for households, yet it was not the only factor driving change in rural communities, with women increasingly involved in decision-making in both ‘migrant’ and ‘non-migrant’ households. While new roles in farming have emerged for women, traditional gender norms still constrain how women practice farming. Farming is changing noticeably, with less focus on maximising crop production and raising livestock and more emphasis given to management of farmland closer to settlements and less intensive farming.

Exploring the Use of Mobile Health to Improve Community-Based Health and Nutrition Service Utilization in the Hills of Nepal: Qualitative Study.

BackgroundWith mobile phone coverage and ownership expanding globally, mobile health (mHealth) interventions are increasingly being used to improve coverage and quality of health and nutrition services. However, evidence on mHealth intervention feasibility and factors to consider during program design is limited in low- and middle-income countries like Nepal.ObjectiveThis study aimed to examine the potential of using text messages to improve health and nutrition services by exploring mobile phone ownership and sharing; mobile phone use and skills; and interest, preferences, and limitations regarding mHealth interventions.MethodsWe conducted 35 in-depth interviews with 1000-day women (the period from conception to a child’s second birthday), health facility staff, and female community health volunteers (FCHVs), as well as eight focus group discussions with health facility staff, FCHVs, and 1000-day household decision-makers (ie, husbands, mothers-in-law, and fathers-in-law). We also conducted a mobile phone skills test. We employed thematic analysis using framework matrices and analytical memos.ResultsThe study included 70 study participants, of whom 68 (97%) had a mobile phone, and phone sharing was uncommon. Use of text messages was most commonly reported by 1000-day women and health facility staff than household decision-makers and FCHVs. More than 8 in 10 participants (54/64, 84%) could dial numbers, and the majority (28/34, 82%) of 1000-day women, health facility staff, and male decision-makers could also read and write text messages. We found that 1000-day women preferred educational and reminder messages, whereas health facility staff and FCHVs desired educational and motivational messages. Participants suggested different types of texts for 1000-day women, families, FCHVs, and health facility staff, and reported less value for texts received from unknown phone numbers.ConclusionsA text message–based mHealth intervention is acceptable in the hills of Nepal and has the potential to improve community health and nutrition service utilization, particularly by sending meeting reminders and by providing information. Our findings contribute to text message–based mHealth intervention design in under-resourced settings.

The income diversification strategies of smallholders in the hills of Nepal

AbstractMotivationThere is an ongoing debate in development economics about whether resources aiming to improve household welfare should be allocated to general development programmes, such as providing education, or to specific income enhancing programmes, such as promoting certain commodities or practices.PurposeThis article contributes to this debate by analysing income levels and income diversification strategies of households that were engaged in growing organic coffee in the hills of Nepal. Engaging in organic coffee production is hypothesized to be an important income enhancing activity for asset‐poor subsistence farmers.Approach and MethodsWe conducted a structured household survey of 441 coffee growers from Gulmi and Lalitpur districts in Nepal with a focus on the sources of income. The household income diversification was measured using the mean of the household share of each type of income and the share of a given source of income over a given group of households. We modelled the determinants of household income using Ordinary Least Squares and Tobit regressions.FindingsWe found that most households derive a higher proportion of income from off‐farm sources. The main finding is that education increases household off‐farm income by improving access to domestic and international labour markets, and this reduces dependence on farming. Low‐income households have a higher proportion of income from farming. Across all households, non‐certified coffee production is financially more attractive to farmers than organic production.Policy ImplicationsOur findings suggest that investing in general development, especially education, is more effective than a scheme to promote cash crops as it allows asset‐poor subsistence farmers to engage in regional and international labour markets.

Evaluation of French Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) Varieties for Summer Season Production in the Mid–Hills of Central Region of Nepal

The experiment on evaluation of open pollinated genotypes of French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L) was conducted during the summer season of 2016 and 2017 at HRD, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal to assess the variability in the genotypes and yield potentiality for commercial production. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five replications. The two new genotypes viz. Semi Light Long and Long Green Bean were compared with Trishuli and Four Season. Fresh pod yield and yield attributing parameters were recorded. The pooled analysis of both years’ data showed significant differences among the genotypes on plant uniformity, number of pods/plants, single pod weight, fresh pod yield/plant and total yield. The number of pods per plant was observed the highest in Semi Light Long (113) followed by Long Green Bean (82) whereas the lowest in Trishuli (73). Similarly, the average pod weight was the highest (12 g) in Long Green Bean and the lowest in Trishuli (9.65 gm). The highest fresh pod yield per plant was observed in Semi Light Long (1188.5 g) followed by Long Green Bean (1015.00 g) and the lowest in Trishuli (768.50 g). The highest total pod yield was observed in Semi Light Long (30.97 t/ha) followed by Long Green Bean (27.02 t/ha) which were statistically at par. The lowest yield was observed in Four seasons (20.58 t/ha). Semi Light Long was also found to be early maturing (70-75 DAS), having long harvesting period (28 days) and thin flesh having pod length of 18-20 cm. Long Green Bean was late in maturity (75-78 DAS), second highest yielder (27.02 t/ha) with thick flesh and light green color at maturity. Based on the two years’ data, Semi Light Long and Long Green Bean genotypes seemed promising during summer season in the central mid hills of Nepal. So, it is suggested that these two genotypes may be considered for registration by the Seed Quality Control Center.

Using 137Cs and 210Pbex to trace soil erosion rates for a small catchment in the mid-hills of Nepal

Soil erosion is a major threat to agricultural sustainability in the hills of Nepal. However, little is known about the soil erosion rates at a small catchment scale in this region. In this study, the soil redistribution rates in a typical small hilly catchment in the Ramechhap District of Nepal were evaluated using the 137Cs and 210Pbex tracer techniques. Nine representative slopes under three land uses and a reference site from the gentle sloping forest land within the catchment were selected as sample plots. A downhill transect was built in each sample plot, and soil samples were collected at 5-m intervals along the transects. The results showed that the spatial variations in radionuclide inventory and soil erosion rates measured by 137Cs measurements were highly consistent with equivalent estimates from 210Pbex measurements, suggesting the potential for using 137Cs and 210Pbex measurements to estimate soil redistribution rates. All 137Cs and 210Pbex inventories on the slopes were less than the reference values, indicating that net soil loss has occurred at all of the sampling points. The net erosion rates from sloping farmland (37.08 t ha???1 year???1) and shrub land (32.52 t ha???1 year???1) were significantly higher than those from forest land (14.91 t ha???1 year???1). Furthermore, the soil erosion rates obtained from 210Pbex measurements were higher than those obtained from 137Cs measurements, which implies that soil erosion in the catchment was accelerated during the last two decades. The net soil loss from the study catchment was estimated to be 31.29 t ha???1 year???1, which is mainly contributed by shrub land (55.08%) and sloping farmland (37.68%). These results indicate that shrub land and sloping farmland are vulnerable to erosion, which should be specifically considered in the sustainable management of small agricultural catchments in the mid-hills of Nepal, especially in dry valley regions.

Effect of Spacing and Nitrogen Level on Growth and Yield of Maize (Zea mays L.) in Mid hill of Nepal

Abstract A field experiment was carried out to study the effect of spacing and nitrogen level on growth and yield of maize in Parbat from February to July, 2019. The experiment was laid out in two Factorial Randomized complete Block Design (RCBD) comprising of spacing: 60×15 cm and 60×25 cm and nitrogen: 30, 60, 90 and 120 kg/ha level as treatment with three replications. “Arun-2” variety of maize was planted on clay loam and acidic soil (pH 5.3) having medium in total nitrogen (0.15%), medium in soil available phosphorus (48.1 kg/ha), medium in soil available potassium (218.8 kg/ha) and medium in organic matter content (2.92%). Result shows that yield was significantly increased with increment in N-level up to 90 kg N/ha. The grain yield (5.18 mt/ha) was significantly higher at 90 kg N/ha than at 30 and 60 kg N/ha but at par with 120 kg N/ha. Significant effect on grain yield due to spacing was observed. The grain yield (4.11 mt/ha) obtained at spacing 60×15 cm. Moreover, the highest grain yield showed that highest grain yield (4.33 mt/ha) was obtained under 90 kg N/ha plus 60×15 cm spacing. The result revealed that different spacing and nitrogen level significantly affect the plant height and leaf area index. The plant height and leaf area index were significantly high at close spacing (60×15 cm) and at 120 kg N/ha. Likewise, yield attributing characteristics like cob length, cob diameter, number of kernel/rows, number of kernel row, thousand gran weight were the highest at 90 kg/ha but as par with 120 kg/ha at close spacing (60×15 cm). This study suggested that maize production can be maximized by cultivating “Arun-2” maize fertilizing with 90 kg N/ha and maintaining 60×15 cm spacing.

Documentation of Indigenous Technical Knowledge and Their Application in Pest Management in Western Mid Hill of Nepal

Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) are based on the experiences of the local people being passed on from one generation to next and has been used for management of pest since ancient times. A study was conducted to collect and document the ITK and their application in pest management from indigenous communities in western mid hill of Nepal. A total sample size of seventy-five respondents from the indigenous communities of Magar, Gurung, and Newar in Tanahun, Lamjung and Kaski districts of Nepal were interviewed with a semi structured questionnaire. The study revealed that subsistence farmers and semi commercial farmers usually made the most use of ITK while commercial farmers rarely used such indigenous knowledge. Use of ITK was highest (85%) by the subsistence farmers, followed by semi-commercial farmers (60%), and lowest (10%) by commercial farmers in pest management. The transfer of ITK was mostly found to be through past generations. The indigenous technological knowledge being applied in pest management should be documented, promoted, and encouraged in combination with scientific knowledge among the farming communities.
 SAARC J. Agri., 18(1): 251-261 (2020)

Genotype × environment interaction and grain yield stability in Chinese hybrid rice

Multi-environment testing helps to identify stable genotypes. The objective of this study was to evaluate Chinese hybrid rice varieties for their grain yield and yield stability at different environments. The multilocation rice evaluation trials were conducted during summer seasons of 2017 and 2018 at five different environments, namely, Hardinath (Dhanusha), Kabre (Dolakha), Parwanipur (Bara), Khumaltar (Lalitpur) and Dhakaltar (Tanahun) in Nepal. Four hybrid rice varieties namely LPNBR1618, LPNBR1615, LPNBR1628 and LPNBR1632 (Standard check variety) were evaluated in a randomized complete block design with four replications in each location. The results indicated a significant (p<0.05) variation in grain yield among the genotypes at Hardinath, Khumaltar, and Kabre whereas they were non-significant for grain yield at Dhakaltar and Parwanipur. The combined analysis of variance indicated significant (p<0.05) effects of environment and genotype × environment (G x E) interactions on grain yield. The pooled data over locations and years showed that LPNBR1632 produced the highest grain yield (7.5 tons/ ha) followed by LPNBR 1618 (6.3 tons/ ha) in terai region (Hardinath and Parwanipur). Similarly, LPNBR1618 gave the highest grain yield (10.3 tons/ ha) followed by LPNBR1615 (9.5 tons/ ha) in mid hills region (Kabre, Khumaltar and Lumle). The genotypes LPNBR1615 (b=1.13), LPNBR1618 (b=1.19) and LPNBR1628 (b=1.15) had more than unity regression indicating the genotype’s suitability towards favorable environments. GGE biplot showed genotype LPNBR1615 was stable genotype among all genotypes. This study suggests that LPNBR 1615 can be grown for higher grain yield production in terai and mid hills of Nepal.

The Commercialization of Smallholder Farming—A Case Study from the Rural Western Middle Hills of Nepal

A vast majority of farmers in the rural middle hills of Nepal are smallholders who often use family labor and follow traditional agricultural and water management practices. This study examines a range of perspectives (from rural farmers to development experts) on the limited commercialization of rural agriculture in this region of Nepal and the potential approaches to promoting agricultural growth and commercialization among small landholders. An analysis of household surveys, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions in three wards of Kaski, Syangja, and Palpa districts of Nepal revealed that nearly one-third of farmers left their agricultural lands barren or only partly cultivated, and more than one-third were not motivated to engage in agricultural activities. This lack of motivation was found to be connected with limited or no access to irrigation water, poor production systems, a lack of access to markets, a low return on investment in agriculture, the low social status of farm-work, the incidence of crop infestations, and fear of production risks due to extreme climatic factors (such as low/high rainfall, droughts, etc.). Remittances related to outmigration were also found to be important factors limiting a farmer’s involvement in agriculture, which also creates labor shortages. This research confirms that, for agricultural production to be profitable and commercial, households need to receive qualified technical support to introduce new technologies, engage in markets, access input suppliers and service providers, and adopt high-value production crops and related techniques. Households that receive an income from government jobs, private sources, and remittances reported agriculture being a laborious and difficult task. Addressing these mediating factors along with the provision of effective crop insurance and subsides for the lower-income segments of the population, has the potential to (re)engage rural households in farming activities. Such an approach could provide a way to realize the government’s plans to commercialize smallholder farming.

Gender differentiated small-scale farm mechanization in Nepal hills: An application of exogenous switching treatment regression

Farm mechanization among smallholder farming systems in developing countries is emerging as a viable option to off-set the effects of labor out-migration and shortages that undermine agricultural productivity. However, there is limited empirical literature on gender and farm mechanization. This study assesses the impacts of the gender of household heads on mini-tiller adoption in the hills of Nepal, using an exogenous switching treatment regression model. Our findings reveal that there is a significant gender gap in mini-tiller adoption between male-headed households (MH-HHs) and female-headed households (FH-HHs). Compared to MH-HHs, the mini-tiller adoption rate is significantly lower among the FH-HHs, and a large amount of unobserved heterogeneity is deriving this difference. Moreover, when MH-HHs and FH-HHs have similar observed attributes, the mini-tiller adoption rate among the food insecure FH-HHs is higher than in the food secure group. The gender-differentiated mini-tiller adoption rate can be minimized primarily by enhancing market access. Findings suggest that farm mechanization policies and programs targeted to the FH-HHs can reduce the gender-differentiated adoption gap in Nepal and similar hill production agro-ecologies in South Asia, which will enhance the farm yield and profitability.

Socioeconomic Impacts of Biogas in Suklagandaki Municipality of Tanahun District

This paper examines socioeconomic impacts of biogas in the western hills of Nepal in general and the Suklagandaki Municipality of Tanahun district in particular. Biogas is considered as a sustainable renewable energy. It has positive environmental impacts on local, national and global levels. It is one of the most reliable alternative energy resources replacing fuel wood for cooking especially in rural areas of Nepal. On the basis of 40 biogas users sampled households, this paper revealed that more than 70 percent households reported that after the installation of biogas plant, there were some positive changes in their socioeconomic conditions. For example, the use of biogas energy has saved about 70 percent of the household fuel consumption especially for firewood and kerosene. About 60 percent households have reported that use of biogas as an energy sources has also saved them working loads and time and waste of biogas increased 65 percent of the total agricultural production. The use of biogas energy has also improved in their health through smoke prone diseases such as burning eyes, headache, coughing and throat ache. Biogas plant has also improved in household sanitary condition and practices, it has also reduced firewood consumption. This paper also indicates the negative impacts of biogas plant installation such as increase the number of mosquito population and losses of warmth in the house especially in winter season. The overall findings show that biogas has certainly beneficial for the socioeconomic changes in the rural areas of the study area.

Commodifying the community forestry: a case from scientific forestry practices in Western Hills of Nepal

ABSTRACTThis research explains the distributive effect of the implementation of scientific forestry practices in the community forests of Nepal. Taking a case from two community forests of Nepal, the study conducted financial analysis of scientific forest management, followed by semi-structured interviews with stakeholders and observation. Scientific forest management can be beneficial to forest user groups in rhetoric. However, forest user groups are selling timber at a price far below the cost of production and thus efficient economic model of scientific managment is compromised. Users should either pay the price at par with the production cost or increase their labor contribution. Surprisingly, forest user groups give priority to selling timber either in the market or to local elites, instead of distributing to the poor and marginalized members. Both elite capture and bureaucratic control take place during implementation. Paradoxically, scientific management is defeating the primary purpose of community forests, i.e. assisting local communities in fulfilling the basic needs of forest products and facilitating an equitable sharing of benefits. In Nepal, the forest bureaucracy has not only commodified community forestry for timber production but also succeeded to seize official and un-official revenue from the decentralized forests.

Understanding socio-ecological drivers of fuelwood dynamics and their impact in Churia hills of Nepal

Forests in developing countries are under tremendous pressure because of increasing dependence of human communities on timber, fodder, non-timber forest products, and fuelwood. Nepal’s forests approximately cover 40% of its total geographical area, which experiences very high human dependence. In the present study, we propose an innovative approach of coupling socio-ecological attributes in Kayarkhola watershed in Churia hills of Nepal using remote sensing datasets and field observations to understand the patterns of fuelwood dynamics. Using multi-temporal moderate resolution satellite datasets, we have analyzed the patterns of land use and land cover change from 1990 to 2010 and assessed the effectiveness of community forestry management. The socio-ecological coupling provided quantification of most significant drivers of fuelwood dynamics. We observed low forest loss in community forests in comparison with those falling outside community forests. We conclude that family size, income levels, and percentage of illiterate persons are the most significant individual factors, whereas these factors along with the availability of agricultural land, supply of alternative energy sources are significantly inversely related drivers controlling the fuelwood dynamics. The scenarios developed in this study can be extrapolated in different landscapes to quantify the fuelwood dynamics, which will help in better forest cover management and conservation.

Building national security through human security: Seasonal migration from Upper Mustang

Migration is one of the essential social-cultural phenomena of human being around the world. Seasonal migration is one of the human security dimensions directly related to the national security of a country. This paper explores the human security dimension closely related to seasonal migration and national security which has reasons, processes, and destinations of the Lobas of Upper Mustang, Nepal. The survey, interview, and field observation (Upper Mustang, Western Hills of Nepal and Vanarashi, India) were the principal methods of data collection. The findings of the research are that both married males and females having agriculture and livestock occupations of the large family go for seasonal migration from Upper Mustang, Nepal. The dominant age group of migrants is 20-50 years. The level of literacy, language efficiency, and social network plays a determining role in choosing the destination and period of stay out. They usually migrate to a group and use multiple modes of transportation for their travel. For business, they use the social network. They rent a room to live in. For business investment, they use mostly their own money and some they borrow from moneylenders. They not only work themselves also employ Nepali speaking youths in Vanarashi. Their property in Upper Mustang is taken care of mostly by their family members. They bring cash and kind as their earning while returning home.

Community based seed production through IRRI /IAAS projects in western mid hills of Nepal: A review

A review on the community based seed production through IRRI/IAAS projects was made to know the seed production situation in western mid hills of Nepal. In Nepal, around 90% of seeds are supplied through informal sector where seed replacement rate (SRR) of major staple food crops is around 10%. The formal seed supply systems are characterized by a vertically organized production and distribution of released or registered varieties by public and private organizations using agreed quality control mechanism. Community Based Seed Production (CBSP) is one of the most important community resources from which, small holder farmers can improve their livelihoods which serves as a means to attain food and nutrition security and income generation to the farmers. IRRI/IAAS collaborative projects (IFAD TAG 706, STRASA and CURE) have establish 15 CBSP organizations in Lamjung, Tanahun, Gorkha and Bajhang district since 2006 to 2014 and producing quality seed annually. Project team has developed a unique type of working modality to get success in research, development and technology dissemination. Conduction of PVS trial annually in key sites, regular training to farmers, exposure visit of farmers, monthly meeting with farmers, regular minikit distribution in new sites, award to best seed producers, collaborative work with respective DADOs are some examples. Though CBSPs have faced major challenges like limitation of fund for seed buying, availability of quality source seed in time and place, availability of machines like moisture meter, grading machines, weighing machines, seed storage problems, marketing problems, natural disasters etc. the projects have contributed in release of rice varieties like Ghaiya-2, Sukhadhan series from 1 to 6, Bahuguni, Hardinath-2 and Chiyarang sub-1 as drought tolerant, and Ramdhan, Sunaulo sugandha, Mithila, Swarna sub 1 and Barkhe 1022 as irrigated varieties during project period.

Allocative efficiency and adoption of improved maize variety: A case of eastern hills of Nepal

Production and profit from maize farming can be substantially increased by allocating resources efficiently and adopting improved maize variety. In this context, a study was undertaken to determine the allocative efficiency and factors affecting adoption of improved maize variety in Eastern hills of Nepal. Random sampling was conducted in eastern part of Khotang district namely, Halesi municipality and Diktel Rupakot Majuwagadi municipality during month of March 2019. Pretested semi-structured questionnaire was administered among 80 randomly selected farmers cultivating maize since last two years. Face to face interview was scheduled to obtain data. Cobb Douglas production function was used to determine allocative efficiency; probit regression model was launched to determine factors affecting adoption of improved maize variety. Significant positive relation of cost of seed, planting, and weeding with income has suggested to increase expenditure on certified maize seed over own farm seed, line sowing over broadcasting, and weeding. The model revealed that increasing all the factors of production by 100% would result in increase in income by 71.83%. Furthermore, cultivating improved maize variety is more profitable than own farm seed. Probit regression model showed that, farmers who have received training, who were member of cooperatives and who have received high schooling were more likely to adopt open-pollinated improved maize variety. Unavailability of inputs (seed, fertilizer, and labor), insect pest attack and adverse climatic conditions were major constraint of maize farming. Therefore, it would be better to suggest maize producers to increase expenditure on seed; make maize field weed free and adopt line sowing method. In addition, providing training, increasing access over inputs and encouraging farmers towards cooperatives could be virtuous for sustainable maize production.