Highest Biodiesel Yield Research Articles

Ultrasonic-assisted biodiesel generation from waste chicken fat utilizing a novel and reusable Ce-doped Fe2O3 nanocatalyst: Optimization by CCD, kinetics, and nano-additive on emissions and performance of a diesel engine

The present study aimed at the fabrication of an efficient nanocatalyst utilizing cerium doped on hematite (Ce-doped Fe2O3) as a highly reactive catalyst in biodiesel generation from waste chicken fat (WCF) under ultrasonication and also as nano-additive to improve diesel engine features. The surface features of Fe2O3 and Ce@Fe2O3 nanoparticles were investigated utilizing several analyses. The characterization outcomes demonstrated that the Ce element was successfully incorporated into the Fe2O3 structure. RSM-assisted experimental design was utilized to optimize effective parameters on biodiesel efficiency. According to the CCD results, the maximum biodiesel yield employing Fe2O3 and Ce-doped Fe2O3 nanocatalysts was 91.57% and 95.38%, respectively, which were obtained after 30 min of ultrasonic irradiation time. Also, various proportions of petrodiesel and biodiesel as well as adding Ce@Fe2O3 nanoparticles to the fuel blend at different torques (20–100%) were tested on diesel engine parameters. The outcomes revealed that adding biodiesel to petrodiesel diminished CO (10.02%) and UHC (6.34%). Further, increasing biodiesel content in the fuel composition enhanced BSFC (8.29%) and EGT (14.17%) parameters and declined BTE (13.37%). Besides, increasing the percentage of torque enhanced EGT and BTE and reduced BSFC. Also, adding Ce@Fe2O3 nanoparticles to biodiesel/diesel blends reduced CO, NOx, and UHC concentrations, and enhanced BTE and BSFC values. Kinetic and thermodynamic analyses reveal that the transesterification reaction is first-order and endothermic. Furthermore, the activation energy for biodiesel generation using Fe2O3 and Ce-doped Fe2O3 nanocatalysts were attained at 46.61 and 46.58 kJ/mol, respectively, which are considerable amounts. Besides, the reusability investigation showed that Ce-doped Fe2O3 nanoparticles have high stability, so that after the 7th cycle, the biodiesel yield was 87.26% (only a 7.5% decrease in efficiency). Generally, owing to unique features including high catalytic performance, considerable reusability, and high biodiesel yield, Ce-doped Fe2O3 nanoparticles are highly recommended for industrial applications.

Production of ethylic biodiesel from Tilápia visceral oil

The use of biodiesel from Tilapia visceral oil will allow the development of economy where a fishery is developed. The fishing industry has resulted in the production of large quantities of fish waste, especially fish viscera which are discarded into the environment. The aim of this work is to show the process of Tilapia visceral oil extraction, characterization and obtainment of biodiesel by ethylic route. For the feasibility of transesterification is necessary that the oil has low moisture content and free fatty acids (FFA) below 5%, since the high value of these two parameters can preclude transesterification by forming high quantities of soap. The results of this study show that the Tilapia visceral oil has low moisture (0,12%) and only 3.11% of FFA. For the experiment it was used 1.8% of catalyst KOH, obtaining a high yield of biodiesel as shown by nuclear proton 1H NMR analysis. The results are very promising and show that it’s possible to convert a fish waste in biodiesel.

Ultrasound irradiation-assisted biodiesel synthesis from waste oils employing a retrievable and strong CoFe2O4/GO/SrO nanocatalyst

A novel heterogeneous CoFe2O4/GO/SrO nanocatalyst was synthesized using ultrasonic irradiation, and employed for synthesizing biodiesel from waste edible oil (WEO). To this end, a 2-step esterification-transesterification reaction utilizing ultrasound was applied. The surface attributes of CoFe2O4/GO/SrO was specified by XRD, FTIR, FESEM, EDX/Map, BET, DLS, CO2-TPD, and VSM analyses. CO2-TPD analysis indicated that the CoFe2O4/GO/SrO nanocatalyst has favorable catalytic activity for transesterification. CCD-based RSM approach was employed to examine the influence of parameters and ascertain optimal conditions under ultrasonic irradiation (24 KHz, 200 W, 70 % duty cycles and 60 % amplitude). Also, the utmost biodiesel yield (98.63 %) was achieved using CoFe2O4/GO/SrO under optimum conditions (i.e., time = 53.76 min, temperature = about 69 °C, CH3OH/oil proportion = 16.3:1, and nanocatalyst dosage = 5 wt%), which is the highest biodiesel performance ever attained using WEO. However, the highest biodiesel yield under optimal conditions by magnetic-stirrer at 600 rpm was 72.9 %, which is much lower than utilizing ultrasonic irradiation. Further, the stability investigation indicated that the CoFe2O4/GO/SrO nanocatalyst has a yield of over 90 % after five reuse stages, which reveals its remarkable stability. Besides, the kinetics of biodiesel production displayed that the reaction between methanol and WEO utilizing CoFe2O4/GO/SrO nanocatalyst is endothermic and the reaction rate enhances with temperature. On account of its high biodiesel yield, favorable catalytic activity, short reaction time, and remarkable stability, the CoFe2O4/GO/SrO nanocatalyst is strongly recommended for biodiesel generation from WEO in the presence of ultrasonic irradiation for industrial applications.

An ICP-MS study on metal content in biodiesel and bioglycerol produced from heated and unheated canola oils

This study addresses the challenges of biodiesel production costs and waste oil disposal by investigating the use of low-cost waste oil as a feedstock. The impact of heating temperature on biodiesel yield and trace metal levels is examined using response surface methodology (RSM). Optimal conditions for high biodiesel yields (95–98%) from canola oil are determined with a methanol/oil ratio of 12:1, 1 wt% catalyst, and 60-min reaction time. For crude bioglycerol, the optimal conditions involve a methanol/oil ratio of 4.25:1, 2.93 wt% catalyst, and 119.15-min reaction time. Elemental analysis reveals the presence of high-concentration metals like Cu and Zn and low-concentration ones such as Pb, As, Se, and Zr in both oil feedstocks and their respective biodiesel and bioglycerol products. The study demonstrates that thermal stress on canola oil significantly impacts biodiesel and bioglycerol yields and trace metal levels during the transesterification process. The findings contribute to enhancing cost-effectiveness and environmental sustainability in biodiesel production.

Process simulation and economic assessments for biodiesel production catalyzed by green Nanocatalysts

AbstractThe biodiesel production catalyzed by naturally derived catalysts such as calcium oxide (CaO) and sulfonated carbon catalysts achieved high biodiesel yield at moderate operating conditions. However, very few studies were conducted to evaluate the economic feasibility of industrial‐scale production of biodiesel catalyzed by both green catalysts of CaO and sulfonated carbon catalysts. The current study aims to assess the technical competency and economic feasibility of industrial‐scale production of biodiesel catalyzed by two processes 1.) CaO catalyst and 2.) sulfonated carbon catalyst. Process simulations via Aspen Hysys were carried out to perform material and energy balances for both process configurations designed earlier with respect to the base catalyst (CaO) and acid catalyst (sulfonated carbon) used. Economic analysis was initiated after the equipment sizing and costing had been carried out. Total capital investment, total manufacturing cost, and key performances of the rate of return, payback time, breakeven point, and net profit after‐tax rate were calculated for each process. Based on the economic analysis, the computed return on investment (ROI) is 105.36%, and it has a low payback period of 0.94 year to offset its original investment. The discounted cumulative profit (NPV) analysis shows that breakeven was achieved in the 3rd year. On the other hand, for the plant that utilizes sulfonated carbon in the transesterification reaction, the computed ROI is 14.02% with a payback period of 7.13 years, and the breakeven was achieved in the 9th year. In conclusion, the manufacturing plant of transesterification reaction catalyzed by CaO catalyst appeared as the most promising pathway either technically or economically.

Enhanced conversion of non-edible Jatropha oil to biodiesel utilizing highly reusable Mg decorated CoFe2O4 nanocatalyst: Optimization by RSM

This paper aims to develop a novel and efficient magnetic nanocatalyst for producing biodiesel from Jatropha oil. Therefore, Mg@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite as a retrievable, and strong catalyst was synthesized and employed for transesterification of Jatropha oil. After that, various analyzes were employed for characterizing Mg@CoFe2O4 nanocomposite, including XRD, Raman, FTIR, FESEM, EDX, CO2/TPD, BET, VSM, and TEM. These analyzes confirmed that Mg was successfully decorated on CoFe2O4. Response surface methodology (RSM) was employed to optimize efficient variables on biodiesel generation. The utmost biodiesel efficiency utilizing CoFe2O4 and Mg@CoFe2O4 nanocatalysts were 93.99 % and 95.49 %, respectively, which are obtained at ultrasonication time of 32.21 and 33.96 min, respectively. These biodiesel yields indicate the extraordinary efficiency of both nanocatalysts. Also, Mg@CoFe2O4 indicated a high biodiesel yield (i.e., 87.43 %) after seven reuse steps, indicating the remarkable reusability of this nanocatalyst. The thermodynamics and kinetics of transesterification showed that the biodiesel generation reaction is endothermic and the reaction speed enhanced with enhancing temperature. Moreover, decoration of CoFe2O4 with Mg led to improved catalytic performance and boosted biodiesel yield. Overall, the Mg@CoFe2O4 nanocatalyst is strongly recommended for future investigation owing to its excellent biodiesel performance, short reaction time, and extraordinary reusability of the catalyst.

Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Sludge of Mask Waste and Used Cooking Oil Using Lipase as Biocatalyst

Mask waste and used cooking oil contain hydrocarbons and free fatty acids. the combination of these ingredients with pretreatment heating in the microwave and the help of lipase enzymes makes the resulting sludge has the potential to be converted into biodiesel with a maximum yield when compared to making biodiesel from other materials and methods. The results of this study indicate that pre-treated sludge from mask waste and used cooking oil can be converted into biodiesel through a methanol transesterification reaction with the help of thermostable lipase enzymes from Pseudomonas. As for the optimum conditions, the highest biodiesel yield was produced at a temperature of 60℃, the best reaction time was 25 minutes, the volume of sludge was 10 mL and the optimum pH was at pH 8. The flame test on the biodiesel produced had been carried out, most of which had bright blue, red flames and orange. There are also some results that the flame is dim and even the test results are not lit.

One factor at a time and two-factor optimization of transesterification parameters through central composite design (CCD) for the conversion of used peanut oil (UPNO) to biodiesel

This present investigation has optimized the acid and base catalysed transesterification process parameters to enhance the conversion of used peanut oil (UPNO) into biodiesel through a central composite design. Of the different acid and alkali catalysts tested, KOH and H2SO4 were found to be efficient catalysts, which yielded 94.2% UPNO biodiesel. For one factor at a time approach, four reaction parameters such as catalyst dose, reaction time, methanol volume, reaction temperature, and speed of mixing were chosen and a catalyst dose of 1 g and reaction time of 60 min was found to be an independent influential factor to enhance UPNO yield. Therefore, KOH/ H2SO4 catalyst concentration and reaction time were selected to ascertain their synergistic effect on the UPNO biodiesel production through central composite design (CCD). Two factorial CCD design unveils that 1.5 g catalyst (acid and alkali) and 90 min reaction time are the optimal conditions along with 70 °C reaction temperature, 6 mL methanol volume, and 50 rpm stirring speed for high UPNO biodiesel yield of 95.9%. In addition, the fatty acid profile of UPNO biodiesel contains oleic acid and linoleic acid as dominant fatty acids in the range of 55–56 % and 25–27%, respectively in KOH and H2SO4 catalysis. Further, MUFAs, PUFAs, and SFAs levels of UPNO biodiesel produced by H2SO4 catalyst were 55.44, 25.66 and 16.43 %, respectively while they were 56.12, 26.32 and 14.53%, respectively for KOH catalysis. Based on the results of high UPNO biodiesel and MUFA levels, it is contemplated that UPNO biodiesel could be a promising alternative fuel from a commercialization perspective.

Novel Copper Oxide Phyto-Nanocatalyst Utilized for the Synthesis of Sustainable Biodiesel from Citrullus colocynthis Seed Oil

The green chemistry method for nanocatalyst synthesis along with environmentally feasible non-edible sources are promising alternatives to fossil fuels. The current study focuses on the synthesis of copper oxide phyto-nanocatalyst and the identification of a new renewable feedstock, Citrullus colocynthis, to reduce environmental pollution. The highest biodiesel yield (95%) was obtained under optimum conditions of a 1:8 oil-to-methanol ratio and reaction temperature of 85 °C for 120 min with a 0.365 wt% catalyst concentration. The phyto-nanocatalyst was synthesized using seed oil cake after extracting oil with the salt of copper (copper oxide). The catalyst was then subjected to various analyses, namely, EDX, FT-IR, SEM, and XRD. The catalyst was proved to be efficient and effective after being reused five times and still there was a very small difference in biodiesel yield. All the analyses also show sustainable and stable results. Thus, copper oxide phyto-nanocatalyst with non-edible Citrullus colocynthis proved to be highly effective, sustainable, and a better alternative source to the future biodiesel industry.

Enzymatic esterification/transesterification of rice bran acid oil for subsequent γ-oryzanol recovery

This study recovered γ-oryzanol from rice bran acid oil (RBAO), following an initial enzymatic esterification/transesterification to selectively convert its glyceride impurities into fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEEs) or biodiesel. γ-oryzanol was then deprotonated and separated from the biodiesel into the resulting aqueous phase via acid-base extraction. Herein, we determine the effects of varying reaction conditions, i.e., ethanol:RBAO molar ratio, temperature, reaction time, enzyme loading, and agitation speed, on the degrees of glyceride removal, γ-oryzanol loss, free fatty acid (FFA) remaining, and biodiesel content. Up to 100% glyceride removal was achieved with a relatively high biodiesel yield (84%) and γ-oryzanol loss as low as 26% under our most suitable reaction conditions (5:1 ethanol:RBAO molar ratio, 40 °C, 24 h reaction time, 10%wt enzyme loading, 200 rpm agitation). Furthermore, of the remaining oryzanol, up to 94% was recovered by the acid-base extraction with 2-4 M ethanolic NaOH solution. Our results suggest that a combination of enzymatic esterification/transesterification with subsequent acid-base extraction offers an efficient alternative approach to the simultaneous production of biodiesel and γ-oryzanol recovery from low-cost RBAO. Based on our analysis of techno-economic and environmental sustainability, integration of the present method into a rice bran oil refinery would make the process profitable, with the minimum use of toxic chemicals and energy.

Quantity and Physicochemical Analysis of Biodiesel from CPO Processed by Electrolysis Method

Biodiesel is produced by esterification-transesterification, using alcohol as a reactant and acid and base catalysts. Electrocatalyst is a method to increase production yield by utilizing H+ and OH– ions as a catalyst. This study aims to investigate the biodiesel production process through the esterification-transesterification reaction and analyze the physicochemistry of biodiesel produced from CPO by electrolysis using platinum electrodes. CPO was esterified-transesterified and then analyzed the production yield and physicochemistry of biodiesel. Rsults showed that the highest biodiesel yield was produced at a voltage of 6 V, which is 88.67%, the lowest acid value and moisture content of biodiesel was produced from a voltage of 12 V are 0.99 mgKOH/g and 0.75%, the kinematic viscosity that met the SNI biodiesel standards resulted in a voltage of 6 V and without the use of electrolysis, namely 3.53 cSt and 3.63 cSt, and the highest flash point value for biodiesel is produced from a voltage of 12 V, which is 109 ° C. Keywords: Biodiesel, Crude palm oil (CPO), Electrolysis, Physicochemical, Platinum.

Optimization and characterization of biodiesel from waste cooking oil using modified CaO catalyst derived from snail shell

Currently, research has diverted toward generating renewable fuels due to the unreliable supply and rising cost of conventional fuels. Biodiesel is renewable fuel commonly obtainable via a simple process. Biodiesel was produced via the transterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) using heterogeneous catalysts. The aim of this study was to synthesis a ZnO and TiO2-supported CaO catalyst from a snail shell for the transterification of waste cooking palm oil to produce biodiesel. Sol-gel and wet-impregnated methods were adopted to synthesize ZnO and catalyst, respectively. The physicochemical properties of waste cooking oil and biodiesel were characterized in accordance to AOAC and ASTMD standard methods. The FTIR and XRD analyses were carried out to characterize the biodiesel and the prepared catalysts. The result of this study revealed that CaO catalyst derived from snail shall, resulted to a WCO-derived biodiesel yield of 80%. The CaO catalyst modified with ZnO and TiO2, further led to an increased biodiesel of 90% and 95%, respectively. The result of this study showed that the optimum conditions associated with highest biodiesel yield over the synthesized catalysts were at 3% catalyst weight, 65 °C, a 6:1 methanol-to-oil ratio and 3-h reaction time. The FTIR spectra also proved successful formation of biodiesel. Biodiesel was successfully synthesized from WCO, and the CaO catalyst synthesized from snail shells and modified with ZnO and TiO2, showed potential to substitute for costly catalysts derived from chemical reagents for biodiesel production.

Optimization study on the production of argemone mexicana biodiesel and its impact on diesel engine combustion stability: Taguchi model and wavelet analysis

A research study is being conducted to investigate the potential use of Argemone mexicana oil (adulterated with mustard oil and non-edible) as a biodiesel source in a compression ignition (CI) engine to replace the maximum amount of fossil fuel in the engine. This research aims to optimize transesterification reaction parameters to achieve high yields of Argemone mexicana biodiesel (AGB). The study employed the Taguchi method to optimize the appropriate combination of transesterification reaction parameters. A transesterification reaction at 60 °C, 90 min, with a molar ratio of 6:1, produced a maximum yield of 95%. Additionally, the present study explores the combustion stability of a 4-cylinder turbocharged CRDI engine using AGB/diesel blended fuels. The wavelet transform (WT) analysis has also been used to observe temporal and spectral variations in the combustion parameters of various AGB/diesel blends. The global wavelet spectrum (GWS) and wavelet power spectrum (WPS) analyses showed that the AB10 blend exhibited the lowest cyclic fluctuations in indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP) combustion parameter at a low engine load. The study of the spectral variations of the IMEP combustion parameter based on the in-cylinder pressure feedback can be used to develop better fuel injection control strategies.

Intensified biodiesel production from waste cooking oil and flow pattern evolution in small-scale reactors

In this paper, the transesterification reaction of waste cooking oil (WCO) with methanol using KOH as catalyst to produce biodiesel was performed in a micro-reactor (1 mm ID) using a cross-flow inlet configuration. The effects of different variables such as, methanol-to-oil molar ratio, temperature, catalyst concentration, and residence time on biodiesel yield, as well as the associated flow patterns during the transesterification reaction were investigated and the relationship between flow characteristics and mass transfer performance of the system was examined. The work reveals important aspects and the links between the hydrodynamic behaviour and the mass transfer performance of the intensified reactors. It was found that high yield (>90%) of biodiesel can be achieved in one-stage reaction using cross-flow micro-reactors for a wide range of conditions, i.e., methanol-to-oil molar ratio: 8–14, catalyst concentration: 1.4%–1.8% w/w, temperature: 55°C–60°C, and residence times: 55–75 s.

Xanthium strumarium seed as a potential source of heterogeneous catalyst and non-edible oil for biodiesel production

A sustainable process has been developed for synthesis of biodiesel by utilizing seed shell ash and non-edible seed oil from Xanthium strumarium seeds. The catalyst prepared by open air burning (UC), calcinations at 550 °C (C550) and 700 °C (C700) was characterized by powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), field emission scaning electron microscope (FESEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), field emission transmission electron microscope (FETEM), X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS), thermogravimetric (TG) and brunauer-emmett-teller (BET) analysis. Elemental analysis by XPS and EDX displayed the presence of potassium (34 wt%) in high concentrations that can contribute effectively to the transesterification process. The derived catalyst provides a high biodiesel yield (98.3%) at optimum operating conditions viz. 6 wt% catalyst concentrations, 9:1 methanol to oil ratio at 60 °C within 70 min. FFA content reduced from 5.63 mg in the oil to 0.28 mg in the biodiesel due to presence of considerable amount of amphoteric SiO2 and acidic P2O5 in the catalyst. The catalyst prepared at 550 °C showed the highest pH value of 11.78. The Hammett indicator test provides higher basicity for C550 (0.513 mmol/g) than that of C700 and uncalcined catalyst. The reaction follows pseudo-first-order kinetics and the activation energy was found to be 37.413 kJ mol−1. The reusability study also showed satisfactory biodiesel yield (82.3%) at 3rd round of transesterification reaction. The prepared biodiesel was characterized by 1H and 13C NMR, GC-MS analysis and the fuel parameters are evaluated by the standard protocols.

Polymer functionalization of biochar-based heterogeneous catalyst with acid-base bifunctional catalytic activity for conversion of the insect lipid into biodiesel

This paper focused on the utilization of the waste insect shell for the development of a novel biochar-based heterogeneous catalyst (ZnO/PVPmediate-BC-S) with a highly acid-base bifunctional catalytic capacity for the conversion of the insect lipid into biodiesel. The introduction of polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) as a support mediator was believed to improve the textural properties of support and catalytic activity of the catalyst for the conversion reaction. Meanwhile, the physicochemical properties of the synthesized composite catalyst were characterized with XRD, SEM, TEM, XPS, BET, and FT-IR analysis. The high biodiesel yield (94.36%) was obtained at the defined condition (carbonization temperature = 600 °C, Zn(Ac)2 concentration = 0.3 mol/L, PVP amount = 35 wt%, reaction temperature = 65 °C, catalyst loading = 6 wt%, methanol/lipid molar ratio = 9:1). Moreover, the possible catalytic mechanism of the prepared catalyst was comprehensively described. In addition, the stability and reusability of the prepared catalyst during five reaction cycles were also demonstrated. Finally, the physicochemical properties of the biodiesel studied were well comparable with the ASTM standard as well as with the reported literature.

Biodiesel production from Nannochloropsis microalgal biomass‐derived oil: An experimental and theoretical study using the RSM‐CCD approach

AbstractBiodiesel production from Nannochloropsis is investigated in the current study. Based on the extraction studies, the used biomass is composed of 50% saponifiable lipids, which turns this species to a vulnerable feedstock for biodiesel production. It should also be noted that the acidity of the obtained crude bio‐oil is higher than 2 mg KOH/g, hence it was attempted to survey the biodiesel production from the obtained oil through the esterification reaction with the aid of response surface methodology (RSM). According to the data, the highest biodiesel yield (99.5%) from the bio‐oil is obtained at a reaction temperature of 69°C, a reaction time of 30 min, a methanol to oil molar ratio of 9:1, and an H2SO4 concentration of 0.13 wt.%. In the next step, the in‐situ extraction and esterification of Nannochloropsis were investigated at the observed optimum reaction conditions. Based on the analysis, biodiesel yield from the dry cell weight of the biomass is considered to be 16%, which accounts for 99% conversion of bio‐oil to biodiesel.

Application of Biochar from Woodchip as Catalyst Support for Biodiesel Production

In Asian countries, the primary palm oil producers, used cooking oil (UCO) is the primary feedstock for biodiesel production. It can be converted into an eco-fuel for application in heavy machinery and diesel engine vehicles due to its low carbon emissions and low global warming potential. However, the illegal dumping of UCO containing triglyceride into flowing water bodies (resulting in wastewater treatment and purification complications) has prompted the design of smart UCO collection systems. This study aims to investigate the heterogeneous catalytic performance of biochar as a support catalyst derived from woodchips calcined at 400 °C and 800 °C under nitrogen gas flow. The catalyst was synthesized through the wet impregnation method using two metal oxides (5 wt.%, nickel and molybdenum) via transesterification to enhance the biodiesel yield. High biodiesel yield was obtained through the controlled parameters: 65–95 °C temperature, 10:1 methanol to oil ratio, and 2 h reaction time. The synthesized catalyst was characterized through X-ray Diffraction (XRD) and Field Emission Scanning Electron (FESEM). The biodiesel production was confirmed by Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) Spectroscopy. The results showed that the highest biodiesel yield was produced by the catalyst calcined at 800 °C, which shows a consistent trend in the yields obtained at temperatures in the order 75–85–95–65 °C. In conclusion, calcination at 800 °C resulted in a higher yield (74.66%) and catalyst reusability (≥5 cycles).

Optimization of Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil Using a Green Catalyst Prepared from Glass Waste and Animal Bones

Biodiesel as a fuel has been shown to positively impact the environment; replacing or reducing the dependence on fossil fuels while providing a viable alternative. The use of waste oils, such as non-edible or used oils, can reduce competition with food, loss of resources, and the resulting higher prices. In this study, biodiesel was obtained by a transesterification reaction using used cooking oil from fast-food restaurants as the feedstock and catalysts from waste glass and animal bones as the silica and calcium oxide sources, respectively. Utilizing waste or non-edible oils for the production of biodiesel can lessen the competition with food sources while achieving environmental and ethical biofuel standards. Additionally, employing readily available waste oils and catalysts prepared from waste material is an economical and low-cost process compared to the use of conventional expensive feedstock and catalyst. The catalyst characterization for the prepared CaO–SiO2 catalyst was performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The reaction was optimized using the response surface methodology (RSM) with central composite design (CCD) by varying three parameters: methanol-to-oil ratio, catalyst weight fraction (wt%), and reaction time. The highest biodiesel yield obtained using Design Expert software was 92.3419% at the optimum conditions of a 14.83:1 methanol-to-oil molar ratio, 3.11 wt% catalyst, and 143 min reaction time. This proved that waste cooking oil with CaO–SiO2 catalyst could be used in the transesterification process to produce a high yield of biodiesel, which was shown in the results obtained from the experimental runs.

Synthesis of Biobased Composite Heterogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production Using Simplex Lattice Design Mixture: Optimization Process by Taguchi Method

The use of biobased heterogeneous catalysts made from agricultural waste for producing biodiesel has gained attention for its potential to create a sustainable and low-cost process. The blending of two or more biomass residues to create more viable biobased catalysts is still in its early stages. In this study, a Biobased Composite Heterogeneous Catalyst (CHC) was made by blending the shells of periwinkle (PWS), melon seed-husk (MSH), and locust bean pod-husk (LBP) at a mixing ratio of 67:17:17 using Simplex Lattice Design Mixture, that was then calcined for 4 h at 800 °C. The chemical, structural, and morphological components of the CHC were characterized via XRF, XRD, SEM-EDX, BET, TGA/DSC, and FTIR to assess its catalytic potential. The CHC was employed to synthesize biodiesel from palm kernel oil, and the process optimization was conducted using the Taguchi approach. The XRF analysis showed that the catalyst had 69.049 of Calcium (Ca) and 9.472 of potassium (K) in their elemental and oxide states as 61.592% calcium oxide and 7.919% potassium oxide. This was also supported by the EDX result, that showed an appreciable value of 58.00% of Ca and 2.30% of magnesium, that perhaps provided the active site in the transesterification reaction to synthesize biodiesel. The morphological and physisorption isotherms via SEM and BET showed mesoporous structures in the CHC that were made up of nanoparticles. A high maximum biodiesel yield of 90.207 wt.% was attained under the optimized process conditions. The catalyst could be reused for up to four cycles, and the biodiesel produced met both ASTM D6751 and EN 14214 standards for biodiesel. This study demonstrates that blending PWS, MSH, and LBP waste materials can produce high-quality biodiesel without the need for additional catalysts.