Higher Life Forms Research Articles

Elucidation of Structures and Functions through Peyer's Patches of Responsible Carbohydrate Chains in Intestinal Immune System Modulating Polysaccharides from Japanese Medicinal Herbs

Carbohydrate chains in glycoconjugates play important roles in various life phenomena, and there are numerous types of recognition system for carbohydrate chains due to carbohydrate-lectin interactions/carbohydrate-carbohydrate interactions in all higher life forms. It has been proposed that macromolecular polysaccharides isolated from plants, marine organisms, or fungi cross-interact with known and unknown recognition systems in mammals to express their pharmacological activities. Therefore the elucidation of carbohydrate structures related to the activities and functions of these polysaccharide molecules will lead us to utilize the related information in the development of novel carbohydrate-based drugs and functional foods for human health care. Peyer's patches present in the upper intestinal tract play important roles as inductive sites for both protective IgA production and immune tolerance induction in mucosal and systemic immune systems. Dysfunction of the immunocompetent cells of Peyer's patches is thought to induce allergic/autoimmune diseases and down-regulation of the protective system against infectious agents on mucosal sites. We have isolated several Peyer's patch cell-modulating polysaccharides from medicinal herbs used in traditional Japanese herbal remedies, and they have been assumed to comprise the responsible carbohydrate chains with oligosaccharide sizes for expression of modulating activity. Accumulation of knowledge on the structures and functions of these responsible carbohydrate chains in polysaccharide molecules is believed to be important for the development of methodology for logically factitious regulation of functions of immunocompetent cells in Peyer's patches. This review deals with recent results of our study on the structural clarification of responsible carbohydrate chains in modulating polysaccharides against functions of immunocompetent cells in Peyer's patches.

The Oldest Organisms in our Common Biosphere

Our common biosphere on the earth is virtually colonized with microorganisms that are central to nutrient cycling, degniding pollutants, respiration, photosynthesis, and sustaining our planet. Bacteria have been on the earth for about 87% of the time the earth has been present. They were the first organisms capable of growth and cell division and today they are still very different from eukaryotic organisms. From one perspective, humans are the aliens on the earth as the microbes have been here for about four billion years. From a structure/function perspective bacteria are very different from higher life forms in many ways. Bacteria have. . . .

Microbially Mediated Redox Cycling at the Oxic–Anoxic Boundary in Sediments: Comparison of Animal and Plants Habitats

Microorganisms are responsible for the bulk of transformations that occur in surficial sediments. They are most active at redox boundaries where they can benefit from access to various oxidants and reductants generated during redox cycling events. To illustrate the dynamics of microbially mediated processes, especially those involving sulfur and metal cycles, processes were compared in habitats either bioturbated by a capitellid worm or inhabited by a salt marsh grass. The presence of macrofauna and macroflora greatly altered the three-dimensional array of redox gradients in sediments, but the type and form of reductants and oxidants provided varied greatly; clastic sedimentary infauna subducted solid phase organic material and iron oxides, whereas plant roots released dissolved organic matter and oxygen. These differences resulted in a bioturbated system that exhibited a rapid sulfur cycle (residence time of minutes), but a slower iron cycle (days), whereas vegetation caused a slow sulfur cycle and rapid iron cycle. Alteration of sediments by higher life forms also greatly affected the composition and relative abundances of sedimentary bacteria, even on short time scales. Although redox cycling at interfaces can be somewhat predictable, variations in response to biological and physical perturbations demonstrated wide differences in the dynamics of redox-mediated processes.

The Human Genome Diversity Project: The Politics of Patents at the Intersection of Race, Religion, and Research Ethics

The patenting of human genetic materials provokes wide‐ranging misgivings about the appropriate place and scope of intellectual property protections. The issues implicated range from anti‐competitive practices in the market, the imposition of limits on biomedical research, increasing costs for health care, research ethics, potentials for racial discrimination, and various violations of human rights. Exploring controversies around the Human Genome Diversity Project, patents on genetic sequences, and patents on higher life forms such as the so‐called “Harvard mouse,” the authors find that North American patent policy has developed in the absence of necessary political debate. They link this de‐politicization to the hegemony of neo‐liberal principles most fully demonstrated by the incorporation of intellectual property under international trade negotiations. They point, however, to the recent emergence and increasing audibility of new social movements that seek to reposition issues of intellectual property in larger debates about human rights, distributional equalities, and social justice.

What Genes Can’t Do. Lenny Moss. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 2003, 228 pp., $34.95, hardcover. ISBN 0-262-13411-X.

No one equivocates over the meaning of the term “DNA”, which is simply the abbreviation for the term that describes the general chemical properties of a molecule, nor would anyone quibble with the discovery of the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick some 50 years ago as one of the seminal events in the history of genetics. And what is the composition of the genes of all higher life forms but DNA? Then why is there so much trouble agreeing on what we mean by the word “gene”? Lenny Moss is not the first, nor will he be the last, to tackle the various connotations of “gene” and explore their …

The rights of microbes

Over the last forty years, the circle of organisms thought worthy of inclusion within an ethical framework has expanded markedly, in large part in response to Aldo Leopold's 'land ethic'. However, there are still clear limits to the forms of life we are willing to include in such a framework. In this paper I suggest that a strong case can be made for microorganisms to be accorded special ethical status, as they represent the base of all food chains and of the major biogeochemical cycles. Without lions there is life, but without microorganisms there can be no higher life forms. The notion of protecting individual microorganisms may be absurd, but microbial communities and ecosystems nevertheless deserve protection, and offer an example of the merit of a population based approach to environmental ethics. I argue that humankind should assume the position of a moral agent to the microbial world, by formally recognising the intrinsic worth of microorganisms, as well as their utilitarian value to humans and to the rest of life on earth. The practical implications of such an ethic are discussed.

Ancient Fungal Life in North Pacific Eocene Oceanic Crust

We present evidence that eukaryotic life has existed in an extreme environment, inside the oceanic crust. Up to now only prokaryotes have been discovered within deep marine sediments and glass-rims of pillow basalts, no higher life forms are described as yet. This study demonstrates unique filamentous fossil structures observed within carbonate-filled vesicles of a massive lava flow unit from the upper oceanic crust in the North Pacific (ODP Site 1224). Based on morphological traits including branching, septa and central pores, the filaments are interpreted as fungi. The chemical composition of the fungal structures differs from the surrounding crystalline carbonate matrix in the deep basaltic rocks. Small open space between the fungi and the carbonate cement and undisturbed filamentous growth through different calcite crystals indicate endolithic fungal growth after the calcium carbonate filling. The presence of euhedral pyrite crystals within the carbonate cements points out anaerobic conditions in this habitat. Our results provide for the first time evidence for eukaryotic, fungal life in deep ocean basaltic rocks.

Patentability and higher life forms

Patentability and higher life forms

The voltage-sensitive sodium channel is a bell-shaped molecule with several cavities.

Voltage-sensitive membrane channels, the sodium channel, the potassium channel and the calcium channel operate together to amplify, transmit and generate electric pulses in higher forms of life. Sodium and calcium channels are involved in cell excitation, neuronal transmission, muscle contraction and many functions that relate directly to human diseases. Sodium channels--glycosylated proteins with a relative molecular mass of about 300,000 (ref. 5)--are responsible for signal transduction and amplification, and are chief targets of anaesthetic drugs and neurotoxins. Here we present the three-dimensional structure of the voltage-sensitive sodium channel from the eel Electrophorus electricus. The 19 A structure was determined by helium-cooled cryo-electron microscopy and single-particle image analysis of the solubilized sodium channel. The channel has a bell-shaped outer surface of 135 A in height and 100 A in side length at the square-shaped bottom, and a spherical top with a diameter of 65 A. Several inner cavities are connected to four small holes and eight orifices close to the extracellular and cytoplasmic membrane surfaces. Homologous voltage-sensitive calcium and tetrameric potassium channels, which regulate secretory processes and the membrane potential, may possess a related structure.

ACTH and its Role in Immune-neuroendocrine Functions. A Comparative Study

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) belongs to the melanocortine group of related peptides which share a common precursor, the pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). Melanocortin expresses its functional effects by the stimulation of specific G-protein coupled receptors. To date, five receptor subtypes have been cloned. The POMC gene has been highly conserved during evolution, and ACTH has been found in different cells from invertebrates to vertebrates to vertebrates, including man. With regards the immune system, the presence of melanocortin receptors and the production of ACTH have been reported in invertebrate and vertebrate immuno-competent cells. Among its various physiological effects, ATCH has been shown to play a central role in immmune responses, such as chemotaxis and phagocytosis, in lower and higher forms of life. Moreover, ACTH is a key actor in stress response, and the complex cascade of events observed in vertebrates is reproduced and concentrated in intvertebrate immunocytes. On the basis of the present findings, ACTH should be considered an important immuno-regulator, forming part of the complex mosaic of relationships between the immune and neuroendocrine system which appears to have been substantially maintained over the course of evolution.

Advances in chemical studies on low-molecular weight metabolites of marine fungi

The world oceans represent a resource of huge dimension, but their microbial diversity is still poorly understood. The chemistry of marine fungi was even a widely neglected part of natural product chemistry until recently. But symbiotic and epibiotic coexistence of fungi with higher forms of life, e.g. with sponges, forming highly specialised communities gave rise to an increasing interest in their secondary metabolism. More than 100 metabolites from marine fungi are known now, many of them showing fascinating structures or remarkable biological activities. This review gives a comprehensive summary of most structures and discusses their origin and properties.

Archaea make it big

Archaea make it big

Taxol from fungal endophytes and the issue of biodiversity

Fungi represent one of the most understudied and diverse group of organisms. Commonly, these organisms make associations with higher life forms and may proceed to biochemically mimic the host organism. An excellent example of this is the anticancer drug, taxol, which had been previously supposed to occur only in the plant genusTaxus (yew). However, taxol has been reported in a novel endophytic fungus—Taxomyces andreanae, but also has been demonstrated to occur in a number of unrelated fungal endophytes includingPestalotia, Pestalotiopsis, Fusarium, Alternaria, Pithomyces, Monochaetia and others. Thus, this report presents information on the presence of taxol among disparate fungal genera, and uses these observations as an additional argument to support efforts to study fungal endophytes and preserve their associated host plants.

Section Reviews; Anti-infectives: Section Review Anti-infectives: Natural mediators of host-defence: The role of H2O2in the regulation of bacteriostasis

Host-defence against many different pathogenic microorganisms in higher life forms is mediated in part by the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by a variety of different cellular mechanisms. Since ROS are highly toxic to all living cells, it is important to understand how ROS are used specifically by higher organisms to eliminate pathogens, without causing undue tissue damage to the host. Total elimination of the pathogen clearly involves complete killing, and is generally referred to in this review in general terms as a ‘bactericidal’ process (although not all pathogens eliminated by these mechanisms are necessarily bacteria). However, killing of microorganisms by mechanisms involving ROS must be carefully compartmentalised to avoid injury to the host. Other mechanisms of controlling pathogens may involve processes that inhibit the growth of the pathogen. This effect on invading pathogens is referred to as ‘bacteriostasis’, (again, this process is not necessarily limited to just bacte...

Characterization and function of ATP receptors on hepatocytes from the little skate Raja erinacea.

Hormonal regulation of hepatocytes, via cytosolic Ca2+ signaling, is well established in higher life forms but has not been investigated in elasmobranchs. We therefore examined Ca2+ signaling in hepatocytes isolated from the little skate, Raja erinacea. In hepatocyte populations, ATP induced a rapid, biphasic increase in Ca2+, as it does in mammalian hepatocytes. Other hormones that act on mammalian hepatocytes, such as vasopressin, angiotensin, and phenylephrine, induced no such Ca2+ increase. The initial phase of the ATP-induced Ca2+ increase was seen even in Ca(2+)-free medium, whereas the late sustained phase of the increase was not. Similar dose-response curves were obtained by stimulation with ATP, ADP, UTP, and 2-methylthio-ATP. In contrast, AMP, adenosine, beta, gamma-methyl-ATP, CTP, and GTP induced little or no Ca2+ increase. In single hepatocytes, ATP, ADP, UTP, and 2-methylthio-ATP each induced a sustained increase in Ca2+ at high concentrations, but at low concentrations induced Ca2+ oscillations. A maximal concentration of ATP (100 microM) caused a marked, transient increase in bile flow in the isolated perfused skate liver, whereas 100 microM adenosine had no such effect. These findings demonstrate that skate hepatocytes possess P2 nucleotide receptors that link to intracellular plus extracellular Ca2+ mobilization, which in turn regulates bile secretion. The broad specificity of the response to ATP and related compounds suggests either that multiple types of P2 receptors are expressed by skate hepatocytes or else that these cells possess a single primitive nucleotide receptor from which other P2 subtypes subsequently evolved.

The evolutionary tangle of aging, sex, and reproduction and an experimental approach to its molecular dissection.

Exchange of genetic materials by two individual members of the same species is considered to be the origin of primitive sex. During evolution, this primitive form of molecular sex has been transformed into a complex biological function involving specialized sexual structures and multiple hormonal interactions. Development and maintenance of these reproductive structures are also dependent on hormones and hormone receptors. Furthermore, reproductive specialization in higher forms of life has led to customized species-specific rates of aging and life-span potentials that are commensurate with the reproductive needs of the particular type of organism. Because of this reproductive imposition on aging of the organism, temporal regulation of the hormone response is a significant component of the genetics of aging. We have observed a marked age-dependent alteration in the hepatic expression of the rat androgen receptor (rAR) gene. Among the large number of transcription factors that control the rAR gene, at least three appear to participate in its age-dependent regulation. Two of these are positively acting and yet/to be characterized transcription factors, while the third is a negative regulator the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kappa B). NF-kappa B is the major trans-regulator for genes involved in the immune response, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Involvement of NF-kB in the modulation of both oxidative stress and sex function provides the first example of a common molecular link between sex and aging.

Characterization and function of ATP receptors on hepatocytes from the little skate Raja erinacea

Hormonal regulation of hepatocytes, via cytosolic Ca2+ signaling, is well established in higher life forms but has not been investigated in elasmobranchs. We therefore examined Ca2+ signaling in hepatocytes isolated from the little skate, Raja erinacea. In hepatocyte populations, ATP induced a rapid, biphasic increase in Ca2+, as it does in mammalian hepatocytes. Other hormones that act on mammalian hepatocytes, such as vasopressin, angiotensin, and phenylephrine, induced no such Ca2+ increase. The initial phase of the ATP-induced Ca2+ increase was seen even in Ca(2+)-free medium, whereas the late sustained phase of the increase was not. Similar dose-response curves were obtained by stimulation with ATP, ADP, UTP, and 2-methylthio-ATP. In contrast, AMP, adenosine, beta, gamma-methyl-ATP, CTP, and GTP induced little or no Ca2+ increase. In single hepatocytes, ATP, ADP, UTP, and 2-methylthio-ATP each induced a sustained increase in Ca2+ at high concentrations, but at low concentrations induced Ca2+ oscillations. A maximal concentration of ATP (100 microM) caused a marked, transient increase in bile flow in the isolated perfused skate liver, whereas 100 microM adenosine had no such effect. These findings demonstrate that skate hepatocytes possess P2 nucleotide receptors that link to intracellular plus extracellular Ca2+ mobilization, which in turn regulates bile secretion. The broad specificity of the response to ATP and related compounds suggests either that multiple types of P2 receptors are expressed by skate hepatocytes or else that these cells possess a single primitive nucleotide receptor from which other P2 subtypes subsequently evolved.

Paleolimnology of the McMurdo Dry Valleys, Antarctica.

The McMurdo Dry Valleys presently contain more than 20 permanent lakes and ponds, which vary markedly in character. All, with the exception of a hypersaline pond, have a perennial ice-cover. The dry valley lakes, and lakes in other ice-free regions of continental Antarctica, are unique on this planet in that they consistently maintain a thick year-round ice cover (2.8-6.0 m) over liquid water. The persistent ice covers minimize wind-generated currents and reduce light penetration, as well as restricting sediment deposition into a lake and the exchange of atmospheric gases between the water column and the atmosphere. From a paleolimnological perspective, the dry valley lakes offer an important record of catchment and environmental changes. These lakes are also modern-day equivalents of periglacial lakes that were common during glacial periods at temperate latitudes. The present lakes are mostly remnants of larger glacial lakes that occupied the valleys in the past, perhaps up to 4.6 Ma ago. Two of the valleys contain evidence of being filled with large glacial lakes within the last 10000 years. Repeated drying and filling events since then have left a characteristic impression on the salt profiles of some lakes creating a unique paleo-indicator within the water column. These events are also marked in the sediments by the concentration and dilution of certain chemical constituents, particularly salts, and are also corroborated by carbonate speciation and oxygen isotope analysis. Stratigraphic analysis of dry valley lake sediments is made difficult by the occurrence of an 'old carbon' reservoir creating spurious radiocarbon dates, and by the high degree of spatial variability in lake sedimentation. From a biological perspective, the lakes are relatively simple, containing various taxa of planktonic and benthic microorganisms, but no higher forms of life, which is an advantage to paleolimnologists because there is no bioturbation in the sediments. Useful biological paleo-indicators found in the sediments include cyanobacterial filament sheaths, diatom frustules and other eukaryotic algal cells, protozoan cysts, photosynthetic pigments, and minerals (e.g. carbonates) associated with microbial activity. Future work will benefit from fully characterizing the connection between the ice covers, environmental conditions, and paleo-indicators, thereby allowing refinement of inferences made concerning the paleoenvironment. New dating techniques need to be tested in this environment to overcome the problems associated with radiocarbon dating. The establishment of a detailed and focused paleolimnological campaign is proposed.

Carbon isotopic record of the Latest Proterozoic from Oman

The carbon isotopic ratios of marine carbonate rocks from the latest Precambrian to possibly earliest Cambrian were studied to evaluate possible changes in organic carbon burial and hence in the carbon cycle associated with the evolution of higher life forms. Samples were taken from carbonate units within the Huqf Group of Oman, which was deposited during the interval from approximately 560 to 540 Ma. The data show an initial period of positive δ 13 C values, around + 4‰ PDB, followed by a sharp decrease, over a few meters of section, of about 8‰ in carbon isotopic values, to inferred oceanic carbon values of appoximately − 4‰ PDB. The δ 13 C values then more slowly increase to between 0 and + 2‰. This isotopic pattern may be correlated across Oman over a distance of 800 km

Transgenic Fish and Public Policy: Patenting of Transgenic Fish

Abstract Following the granting of the first patent for a transgenic animal, public debate has arisen over a number of contentious patenting issues, including the very patentability of higher life forms. Against the background of the legal history regarding patentability of novel animals and the viewpoints of the various interest groups, we identify key policy questions currently at issue in the U.S. Congress and the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Finally, we propose positions that the American Fisheries Society might advocate at this critical moment in the determination of national animal patenting policies which are likely to impact the community of fisheries professionals.