Higher Activity Content Research Articles

Grass/Soil Concentration Ratios (CRs) of Natural 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in Vetiveria zizanioides (Vetiver Grass) in Thailand

This work investigated the grass/soil concentration ratios (CRs) of natural radionuclides (226Ra, 232Th, and 40K) in vetiver grass collected from three different regions of Thailand using an HPGe (high-purity germanium) gamma spectrometer. The sampled grass blades were divided into three equal parts to investigate the dependence of grass/soil CRs on the positions of grass blades. The results showed that 40K had the highest grass/soil CRs due to being an essential nutrient for most plants, with ranges of 1.12–7.92, in comparison with 226Ra and 232Th that had ranges of 0.32–1.48 and 0.20–1.31, respectively. In addition, the results indicated that the natural radionuclides investigated were uniformly transferred and accumulated throughout grass blades (p < 0.05), which implied the independence of CRs on the section of the leaf. Furthermore, it was found that the soil samples collected from the central region of Thailand had the highest activity concentrations in all radionuclides, mainly due to a primary composition of dark clay, leading to the highest contents of potassium and calcium (Total K and Total Ca, respectively), and the highest cation exchange capacity (CEC) that led to high concentrations of nutrients and radionuclides. Based on the results from this work, the vetiver grass presented potentials to be utilized as radionuclide absorbers in polluted soil and water due to its high CRs in comparison with other reported plants.

Amide-halamine/silica composite nanofibrous membranes with rechargeable chlorination function for mercaptan degradation

It is an urgent need to develop an effective and advanced technique to degrade mercaptan, a kind of pollution gas with bad odor, which seriously endangers human health and living environment. However, this is still a huge challenge. Here, we have prepared amide-halamine/silica composite nanofibrous membranes possessing rechargeable chlorination capacity via the combination of electrospinning and grafting reaction. The resultant chlorinated composite membranes are endowed with great structural stability attributed to covalent binding between amide-halamine compound and silica nanofibers, and exhibit the intriguing properties of renewable chlorination performance, high active chlorine content and good water swelling resistance, which are highly capable for degrading mercaptan in sewage with high degradation efficiency and large processing flux. More importantly, the successful fabrication of the amide-halamine/silica composite nanofibrous membranes with excellent properties will open a new approach for the design and development of a potential mercaptan degrading materials in wastewater treatment.

Effects of flooding depth on metal(loid) absorption and physiological characteristics of Phragmites australis in acid mine drainage phytoremediation

Abstract To solve the problem of determining which flooding depth is suitable for the process of phytoremediation of acid mining drainages (AMDs), we compared the responses of reed (Phragmites australis), an amphibious plant widely used in phytoremediation, to different flooding depths. In the greenhouse, synthetic AMD was set to four flooding depths (5, 15, 35 and 55 cm); the culture medium consisted of non-acidified tailings; and the growth, trace element contents in different organs and physiological indexes of the reeds were measured 90 days after planting. The results showed that compared with the control group without reeds, the reeds increased the pH value of AMD. More than 5 cm of flooding inhibited the activity of roots and promoted adventitious roots. The plant height and tiller number were significantly increased by 35 cm of flooding. In addition, the levels of trace element absorption of different organs were different at various depths. In general, deeper flooding promoted the absorption of trace elements (except As), and most of these trace elements accumulated in the roots. Through the calculation of the translocation index (TI), it was found that Mn had the highest value and increased with depth. The physiological effects of flooding on different organs were often diverse at various depths, but the leaf blades maintained high enzyme activity and proline content, while the leaf sheaths contained the greatest amount of soluble protein. Therefore, the 35 cm depth of flooding is reasonable for the phytoremediation of AMD to avoid effects on plant growth from the water depth and/or low pH.

Accumulation and distribution of 40K in the chaga mushroom.

This work is the first report on activity concentrations of 40K in Inonotus obliquus sampled in a virgin forest of Siberia. The results have shown that the chaga conk is characterized by high activity concentrations of 40K, averaging 1,641 Bq/kg dry weight (DW) and peaking at 3,502 Bq/kg DW. Activity concentrations of 40K in chaga conks have been defined to increase from the near-trunk stratum to the crust of the conk with increased exposure to the solar radiation. Our measurements have revealed the samples to be mildly contaminated with 137Cs. Intensive assimilation of 40K by chaga conks has been shown as a normal and innate feature of the wild chaga mushroom.

Enhancing the stabilities and electrochemical performances of LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 cathode material by simultaneous LiAlO2 coating and Al doping

Superior environmental and thermal stabilities and well-defined electrochemical performances of lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide cathode materials are needed for next-generation high-performance and safe lithium-ion batteries, to which appropriate modification means have been proven to be crucial for enhancing the properties for these materials. Herein, we develop a facile in-situ approach to co-modify LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 (NCM523) cathode material with simultaneous lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO2) coating and Al doping. Without any additional steps and reagents, the co-modification begins during the preparation of the hydroxide precursor of NCM523 and ends upon the calcination of the cathode material. Combining the synergistic effects from LiAlO2 coating and Al doping, the resultant Al-modified NCM523 possesses a robust protective layer as well as a well-ordered layered structure with enlarged lattice spacing, restrained cation mixing, and concentration-gradient-distributed Ni, thus exhibiting significantly enhanced environmental and thermal stabilities and electrochemical performances over its pristine counterpart. At a high active material content of 94.0 wt.% and a high mass loading of 19.5 mg cm−2 for the testing electrode, the optimized Al-modified NCM523 shows a high discharge capacity (168.4 mAh g−1 at 0.1 C), a high rate capability (capacity retains 67.8% at 3.0 C vs. 0.1 C), and a long cycle life (capacity retains 62.3% after charge / discharge at 0.5 C for 120 cycles). Reasonably, the unique in-situ co-modification approach developed in the present work can be applied for other NCMs with simultaneous LiAlO2 coating and Al doping. More broadly, apart from Al, this approach may be further extended to utilize other modification chemistries to co-modify NCMs and other cathode materials in situ for enhancing their stabilities and electrochemical performances.

Adipose tissue estrogen production and metabolism in premenopausal women

ObjectiveAlthough the ovaries produce the majority of estrogens in women before menopause, estrogen is also synthesized in peripheral tissues such as adipose tissue (AT). The typical female AT distribution, concentrated in subcutaneous and femoro-gluteal regions, is estrogen-mediated, but the significance of estrogen synthesis in AT of premenopausal women is poorly understood. Design and MethodsSerum and subcutaneous and visceral AT homogenates from 28 premenopausal women undergoing non-malignant surgery were analyzed for estrone, estradiol, and serum estrone sulfate (E1S) concentrations with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Isotopic precursors were used to measure enzyme activities of estrone-producing steroid sulfatase and estradiol-producing 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17β-HSD). Messenger RNA (mRNA) expression levels of genes for estrogen-metabolizing enzymes were analyzed using real-time reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction. ResultsWhile estradiol was the predominant circulating active estrogen, estrone dominated in AT, with a higher concentration in visceral than subcutaneous AT (median, 2657 vs 1459 pmol/kg; P = 0.002). Both AT depots converted circulating E1S to estrone, and estrone to estradiol. Median levels of estrone were five to ten times higher in subcutaneous and visceral AT than in serum (P < 0.001) and the estradiol level in visceral AT was 1.3 times higher than in serum (P < 0.005). The local estrone concentration in visceral AT correlated positively with mRNA expression of estrone-producing enzyme aromatase (r = 0.65, P = 0.003). Waist circumference correlated positively with increased estradiol production in subcutaneous AT (r = 0.60, P = 0.039). ConclusionsPremenopausal AT demonstrated high estrogenic enzyme activity and considerable local estrogen concentrations. This may be a factor promoting female-typical AT distribution in premenopausal women.

Identification of radionuclides’ altitudinal distribution In soil and mosses In highlands of Armenia

The present study was conducted in mountain regions of Armenia with the aim to assess the activity concentrations of natural K-40 and artificial Cs-137 in soil and mosses and reveal the distribution similarities and differences. Most widespread moss species and surface soils were sampled concurrently from eight mountain ridges and massifs by different altitudinal belts. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences and opposite characteristics for K-40 and Cs-137. In case of K-40 the activity concentrations decreased in mosses by altitude but with no significant correlation. The mean activity concentrations of K-40 in the soils of different altitudinal belts are close, nevertheless, the higher activity concentrations are common for soils derived from ingenious rocks. For Cs-137 in mosses, the correlation with altitude is statistically insignificant, but the altitudinal dependence is noticeable within separate ridges and massifs. A significant correlation was identified between Cs-137 in soil, altitude and precipitation rate. Studying natural K-40 and artificial Cs-137 radionuclides together yielded interesting contrasting results confirming the dissimilar behaviour of radionuclides with different origins in the environment.

Natural radioactivity levels and radiological implications in the high natural radiation area of Wadi El Reddah, Egypt

Wadi El Reddah, Egypt, is mostly enclosed by scattered exposure to the chronological sequence of a metavolcanic and metagabbro-diorite complex. There are radiological impacts due to internal and external exposure to the high natural background radiation caused by 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in the Wadi El-Reddah stream sediments. 72 samples were collected and the activity concentration was measured using a NaI(Tl) gamma-spectroscopy system. The average activity concentration of 226Ra, 232Th and 40K was 215 ± 118 Bq kg−1, 131 ± 90 Bq kg−1 and 822 ± 125 Bq kg−1, respectively. Most of the studied samples had a higher activity concentration than the world average.

High performance lithium-sulfur batteries based on CoP nanoparticle-embedded nitrogen-doped carbon nanotube hollow polyhedra

Lithium‑sulfur (Li-S) battery with high theoretical energy density is regard as one of the most appealing competitors for the promising next-generation energy storage systems. However, the severe polysulfide shuttling and the low electrical conductivity of sulfur cathode limit the practical application of Li-S batteries. Therefore, the designing of sulfur host materials with high electrochemical activity and high sulfur content have great significance for Li-S batteries. Here, we reported a novel hybrid nanostructure (a new sulfide matrix material) through the pyrolytic reduction phosphorization strategy form ZIF-67, in which CoP nanoparticles were embedded into nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes hollow polyhedron (NCNHP). Due to the synergistic effect of highly active Co, CoP and nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes (NCNTs), the Co/CoP-NCNHP hybrid improved the adsorption of polysulfides. Micropores in Co/CoP-NCNHP effectively impregnate sulfur and inhibit the diffusion of polysulfides through physical constraint. In addition, the Co/CoP-NCNHP conductive network of nitrogen doping carbon nanotubes (NCNTs) interconnection promoted electron transport and electrolyte infiltration. Therefore, the specific capacity, rate capability and cycling stability of Li-S batteries are significantly improved. In particular, we delivered the Co/CoP-NCNHP based cathode (loaded with 74.09 wt% sulfur), which could main the specific capacity of 885 mAh g−1 after 500 cycles of 0.5C current.

Influence of the Activator Concentration and Solid/Liquid Ratio on the Strength and Shrinkage Characteristics of Alkali‐Activated Slag Geopolymer Pastes

Geopolymers have distinct advantages such as having energy‐saving properties, being an environmentally protective material, and having high mechanical strength and durability. However, the shrinkage of the geopolymer materials is one of the major problems to affect its practical application. In this study, blast furnace slag‐based geopolymer pastes were prepared using sodium silicate and sodium hydroxide as activators to investigate the effect of the activator concentration and solid/liquid ratio on strength and shrinkage properties. For a better understanding of the reaction mechanism and microstructure of the geopolymer pastes, a multitechnique approach including scanning electron microscopy, X‐ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectra was carried out. The results showed that the geopolymers compressive strength increased significantly as the activator concentration increased. The increase in activator concentration first increased the flexural strength and then decreased and reached the maximum when the activator concentration was 40%. A higher activator concentration, as well as a lower solid/liquid ratio, generally led to serious geopolymers drying shrinkage. These findings are expected to be ascribed from the changes in the content of the alkali‐activated product (i.e., hydrate calcium aluminosilicate), which depends on the activator concentration. The increase in C‐A‐S‐H gel (hydrate calcium aluminosilicate) compacts paste densifiers but causes shrinkage fracture concerns. These results provide an appropriate proportion for alkali‐activated slag geopolymer pastes with better mechanical strength and antidry‐shrinkage cracking properties, which are beneficial for the further applications of geopolymer materials.

A global view of stellar populations in M82

We present photometric and spectroscopic studies of the stellar content of M82, including the resolved halo stellar population and the halo globular clusters. M82 is a nearby peculiar galaxy that recently went through a close encounter with its more massive companion, M81. As a result, M82 has a high star formation activity and unusual stellar content. We studied the resolved stellar population using the imaging data from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) data archive. Then, their metallicities were analyzed to understand a global view of the stellar populations in M82. We found that the old stellar population in M82 shows typical characteristics for a disk galaxy, while the young stellar population shows a sign of disruption as a result of the recent interactions.

Physico-chemical, nutritional and Anti-oxidative properties of different colored grain genotypes of rice (Oryza sativa L.)

The commonly consumed white rice is a highly refined staple cereal, which is lack of almost all minerals and nutrients. The pigmented rice, enriched with anthocyanin is known for it’s taste and health benefits. Colored rice (Oryza sativa L) genotypes are evaluated under this study. Twenty six genotypes were studied for 8 yield components and 12 physico-chemical, nutritional and Anti-oxidative properties. Among the non-pigmented varieties, BPT 5204, BPT 2270, BPT 2595, BPT 2782 and BPT 2776 recorded the desirable quality traits with excellent cooking quality. The pigmented rice genotypes recorded high amount of total phenols, antioxidant activity and flavonoid contents than non-pigmented varieties. When compared with light brown pericarp colored rice genotypes, red and black rice genotypes possess more protein content, high Zn and Fe content also. Variability studies showing that, high GCV and PCV coupled with high heritability and high genetic advance as percent of mean were recorded for test weight and total number of grains per panicle among yield components, while among quality traits solid loss, alkali spreading value, total phenol content, total antioxidant activity, flavonoid content, zinc and iron content. It indicates that these characters are controlled by additive type of gene action, which can be improved by direct selection. The results of correlation studies revealed that total phenol content, flavonoid content, total antioxidant activity are positively associated with each other and also with protein content, Zn and Fe content, hence simultaneous improvement of all these traits is anticipated. The colored rice varieties reported in the present study recorded medium duration, high yield potential coupled with medium slender grain type and good cooking quality and may be exploited commercially. Black and red rice genotypes viz., BPT 2848, BPT 3140, BPT 3141, BPT 2858, BPT 3111 which recorded desirable physical quality traits, high antioxidant activity, high protein, Fe & Zn content can be included in daily diet for their potential bioactive compounds and neutraceutical benefits to human health.

"Picture-in-Picture" Artifact: Introduction and Characterization of a Hitherto Unrecognized Imaging Artifact in Creating Perfusion Defects in Myocardial Perfusion Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography.

Following a moving hot spot in the projections of raw images and profound perfusion defects in myocardial perfusion single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) imaging of a patient, a hypothesis was postulated that the perfusion defects were artifactual, and the high activity concentration of the gallbladder may be a culprit for this phenomenon, owing to flawed event positioning function of the gamma camera due to a malfunctioning digital event processor electronics board. To depict the characteristics of this artifact, a point source containing an activity of 3 mCi of pertechnetate is placed on the scanning table with the detector facing the table (at a distance of 30 cm), and then, in other detector positions and 1-min static images are acquired accordingly. The ratio is calculated as follows: count of the artifactual focus: 1860, count of the index focus: 705,727, and artifactual-to-index focus ratio: 0.003. In testing the uniformity of gamma camera based on the National Electrical Manufacturers Association protocol, a nonuniform response was detected, seemingly, a smaller field of view (FOV) is reproduced in the main FOV causing nonuniformity more than the acceptable level. The smaller flood image lies in the upper right corner of the main flood image. In essence, the extremely bright gallbladder was the source of error, and its image was reproduced in the FOV, which was superimposed on the left ventricular myocardium in some of the projections and was propagated to SPECT images.

Biodistribution and Radiation Dosimetric Analysis of [68Ga]Ga-RM2: A Potent GRPR Antagonist in Prostate Carcinoma Patients

[68Ga]Ga-RM2 is a promising innovative positron emission tomography (PET) tracer for patients with primary or metastatic prostate carcinoma. This study aims to analyze the biodistribution and radiation dosimetry of [68Ga]Ga-RM2 in five prostate cancer patients. The percentages of injected activity in the source organs and blood samples were determined. Bone marrow residence time was calculated using an indirect blood-based method. OLINDA/EXM version 2.0 (Hermes Medical Solutions, Stockholm, Sweden) was used to determine residence times, organ absorbed and effective doses. Physiological uptake was seen in kidneys, urinary bladder, pancreas, stomach, spleen and liver. Blood clearance was fast and followed by rapid clearance of activity from kidneys resulting in high activity concentrations in the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder wall was the most irradiated organ with highest mean organ absorbed dose (0.470 mSv/MBq) followed by pancreas (0.124 mSv/MBq), stomach wall (0.063 mSv/MBq), kidneys (0.049 mSv/MBq) and red marrow (0.010 mSv/MBq). The effective dose was found to be 0.038 mSv/MBq. Organ absorbed doses were found to be comparable to other gallium-68 labelled GRPR antagonists and lower than [68Ga]Ga-PSMA with the exception of the urinary bladder, pancreas and stomach wall. Remarkable interindividual differences were observed for the organ absorbed doses. Therefore, [68Ga]Ga-RM2 is a safe diagnostic agent with a significantly lower kidney dose but higher pancreas and urinary bladder doses as compared to [68Ga]Ga-PSMA.

UPTAKE OF 226RA FROM IRRIGATION WATER BY BASIL CROPS.

The transfer of 226Ra from irrigation water to basil crops was studied in field conditions. A dedicated basil plot was established and divided into test and control subplots irrigated with water having high (2.1Bq L-1) and low (0.05Bq L-1) activity concentrations of 226Ra, respectively. The experiment was performed over a period of 18months during the autumn, winter and spring seasons, altogether eight cycles of growth and harvest. The activity concentration of 226Ra in basil grown in the test subplots was found to increase from a value of 0.6Bq kg-1 up to 5.1Bq kg-1 with successive cycles, compared to a mean value of 0.2Bq kg-1 for basil grown in the control subplots. The increase in activity concentration of 226Ra in basil grown in the test subplots is mainly attributed to its build-up in the soil in which the level of 226Ra was found to increase by~40%. The effective uptake of 226Ra from the irrigation water (via soil) by the basil plants was found to be approximately 0.4%. The maximal radiation dose following consumption of basil crops grown in the test subplots is negligible (~3μSv/y).

Infraspecific Chemical Variability and Biological Activity of Casearia sylvestris from Different Brazilian Biomes.

Casearia sylvestris is an outstanding representative of the Casearia genus. This representability comes from its distinctive chemical profile and pharmacological properties. This species is widespread from North to South America, occurring in all Brazilian biomes. Based on their morphology, 2 varieties are recognized: C. sylvestris var. sylvestris and C. sylvestris var. lingua. Despite the existence of data about their chemical composition, a deeper understanding of the specialized metabolism correlation and variation in respect to environmental factors and its repercussion over their biological activities was still pending. In this study, an UHPLC-DAD-based metabolomics approach was employed for the investigation of the chemical variation of 12 C. sylvestris populations sampled across 4Brazilian biomes and ecotones. The correlation between infraspecific chemical variability and the cytotoxic and antioxidant activities was achieved by multivariate data analysis. The analyses showed that C. sylvestris var. lingua prevailed at Cerrado areas, and it was correlated with lower cytotoxic activity and high level of glycosylated flavonoids. Among them, narcissin and isorhamnetin-3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1 → 2)-α-L-arabinopyranoside showed good correlation with the antioxidant activity. Conversely, C. sylvestris var. sylvestris prevailed at the Atlantic Forest areas, and it was associated with high cytotoxic activity and high content of clerodane diterpenoids. Different casearins showed good correlation (R2 = 0.3 - 0.70) with the cytotoxic activity. These findings highlighted the great complexity among different C. sylvestris populations, their chemical profile, and the related biological activities. Consequently, it can certainly influence the medicinal properties, as well as the quality and efficacy, of C. sylvestris phytomedicines.

Patterns for Pea-Rhizobium symbiosis efficiency response to pedological and varietal variations in Tunisia

Pedological constrains and varietal recommendations are serious causes of Pea-Rhizobium symbiosis efficiency deviations in Tunisia limiting pea crop adaptation to varying environments. In order to explore variation patterns of this symbiosis in contrasting soils and varieties and appreciate its contribution to plant adaptation, nine locations with potential pea crop vocation are prospected for collection of soils. Two pea varieties with different cycle length are randomly sown on triplicate irrigated containers and placed on natural condition during two seasons. The results have shown that soil fertility is mostly low and highly variable. It is mainly affected by high active limestone content and pH or by salinity. The studied factors (Soil type, Variety) have presented highly significant effect on native rhizobia efficiency, pea root nodulation, shoot and root biomass production, and shoot nitrogen accumulation (p < 0.0001). The long cycle variety gave the highest nodulation and adaptability to pedological variations. The multivariate data analysis indicates that Pea-Rhizobium symbiosis efficiency variability is mainly due to soil microbial biomass, phosphorus, organic matter, and electrical conductivity differences between soils. However, Principal Coordinate Analysis has confirmed the determining effect of these variables on rhizobia effectiveness, pea nodulation, growth and nitrogen accumulation. These results confirm that nitrogen-fixing symbiosis does not contribute in adaptation of pea crop to pedological constrains in Tunisia. Rhizobial inoculation and sepecific fertilization managment have become an urgent need to improve the production of this crop.

Phenol Contents and Antioxidant Activity of Sonokeling (Dalbergia latifolia Roxb) Wood

Dalbergia latifolia or sonokeling is a native species of Java, Indonesia, used as an important wood for furniture and building materials, due to the high of durability and beautiful color. This study, therefore, aim to investigate the phenol composition, represented by total phenolic, flavonoid, and flavanol content, as well as antioxidant activity, conducted by DPPH (1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl) method on Dalbergia latifolia wood. The sample was extracted using ethanol-toluene solvent in a Soxhlet apparatus, and subsequently subjected to column chromatography. This treatment yielded 12 fractions, which were then evaluated for phenol contents and antioxidant activity. The results showed a high antioxidant activity and total phenolic content in Fr.1- Fr.3, while latifolin was detected and characterized by GC-MS and a literature comparison. Therefore, it was established that the antioxidant activity of D. latifolia wood extractives properly correlated with the total phenolic, but not with the total flavonoid and flavanol contents.

Meteorological Factors Controlling 7Be Activity Concentrations in the Atmospheric Surface Layer in Northern Spain

This work presents the analysis of weekly 7Be activity concentrations in the air measured in Bilbao (northern Spain) by collecting aerosols in filters over a ten years period (2009–2018). 7Be level is in the 0.35–7.3 mBq/m3 range, with a mean of 3.20 ± 1.12 mBq/m3. The trend, cycle, seasonal and monthly variability are evaluated using time series analysis techniques. The results indicate the impact of sunspots (24th solar cycle) on interannual 7Be activity concentrations, and a significant seasonal and monthly variation, with maximum concentrations occurring in spring-summer and minimum in the winter. The correlation of different 7Be ranges with local meteorological parameters, such as precipitation, temperature, relative humidity, and pressure, is also addressed, with precipitation having the greatest impact on 7Be activity values. The analysis of synoptic airflows, by calculating the back-trajectory clusters, and local winds at surface level reveals the important influence of the arrival of slow northwest Atlantic flows and the development of breezes on reaching high 7Be activity concentrations in this area.

Use of dimension limestone sludge as filler in asphalt mix

This study investigates the feasibility of using waste dried sludge dust from the Indian dimension limestone (namely, Kota stone (KS)) industry in the place of conventional stone dust as filler in asphalt concrete mix. First, physical, morphological and chemical characteristics of both fillers were determined by relevant standards. Second, asphalt concrete mixes including both fillers were designed and their performance against primary occurrences of distress (rutting, cracking, long-term ageing, ravelling and moisture susceptibility) was evaluated. The KS mix had lower optimum asphalt content than conventional mixes, which was attributed to the lower porosity of KS dust. KS mixes also displayed superior resistance against permanent deformation, cracking and ravelling due to the finer nature of KS. Although the KS had a relatively high active clay content, KS mixes displayed good active and passive adhesion as well as satisfactory resistance against moisture permeation.