High Uncertainty Avoidance Research Articles

E-commerce in high uncertainty avoidance cultures: The driving forces of repurchase and word-of-mouth intentions

This study proposes and empirically tests a contextualized model for investigating repurchase intentions of e-commerce consumers as well as their word-of-mouth (WOM) intentions in high uncertainty avoidance cultures and based on a synthesis of the S–O-R paradigm and Information Processing Theory (IPT). Data for the study were collected from 560 Jordanian online customers and analysed using structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). The findings demonstrated that the dimensions of policy service quality including cash-on-delivery (COD) payment options and return policy leniency, positively influenced customer trust. In addition, electronic logistics service quality (LSQ) dimensions positively impacted customer satisfaction. Furthermore, it was found that satisfaction of online consumers is a major driver of their trust, repurchase, and WOM intentions. While customer trust was revealed as a key enabler of repurchase intention, its effect on WOM was insignificant. The findings provide useful implications for both practice and future research.

The relevance of national culture to policy uncertainty and firm performance: European evidence

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of policy uncertainty on firm performance and to examine how the different cultural societies deal with the policy-induced uncertainty.Design/methodology/approachThe authors use data of European non-financial firms to extend the growing literature on policy uncertainty, firm performance and national culture. The authors consider financial as well as market proxies to measure firm performance and use Hofstede's cultural dimensions as a proxy for national culture. The authors apply the generalized method of moments (GMM-system) regression technique on a dataset of 702 non-financial European firms, listed during the period 2002–2018.FindingsThe authors find overwhelming evidence that policy uncertainty reduces the performance of the European firms; however, cultural differences among different European countries moderate the impact of policy uncertainty on the financial as well as the market performance of the firms. The results of this study show that European cultures with high power distance, individualism, masculinity and indulgence efficiently deal with the economic policy uncertainty. While the European societies with high uncertainty avoidance fail to cope with policy-induced uncertainty. The results are robust to different regression models, alternate proxies of firm performance and endogeneity issues.Practical implicationsThe authors argue that policy uncertainty increases information asymmetry and decreases firm performance, therefore, the policymakers shall be considerate of the consequences of the policy-induced uncertainty in the society and business arena that would not only adversely affect the firms but also the economy.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first study that investigates the role of national culture on the relationship between policy uncertainty and firm performance in the European context.

What determines a country's proactiveness during a pandemic?

What determines a country's proactiveness during a pandemic? The answer to the question lies the focus of this article. This study attempted to determine the extent to which Hofstede's national cultural dimensions are associated with a country's proactiveness. Proactiveness is about acting in advance for the desired outcome(s). The present study accounted for the country's proactiveness as the number of tests conducted per thousand people in the initial phase of the pandemic to prevent an outbreak. For this, data from 64 countries was used and found that cultural dimensions such as power distance, masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance influence a country's proactiveness in the pandemic outbreak's initial phase. Low power distance, low masculinity, and high uncertainty avoidance are related to increased proactiveness. National cultural dimensions explain approximately 66% of the variance in proactiveness. The study findings suggest that national culture influences a country's efforts during the pandemic, implying the need to consider the country's cultural orientation for the effective design and implementation of preventive measures. The theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

National culture and audit report lag: cross-country investigation

PurposeThis study aims to investigate the effect of national culture (power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation) on audit report lag.Design/methodology/approachThe authors use two econometric approaches (ordinary least squares (OLS) and quantile regression) using STATA software for a sample of 1,208 firm-year observations over the period of 2017–2018.FindingsUsing Hofstede’s (2001) cultural dimensions (power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation), the authors find that masculinity and long-term orientation are positively associated with audit report lag, while uncertainty avoidance is negatively associated with the same variable. Quantile regressions suggest that the adverse effect of masculinity on audit report lag is more prevailing for companies communicating companies' annual reports in a timely manner. Furthermore, the positive association between power distance and audit report lag exists only under tardy disclosure regime. Quantile regressions also confirm that the negative (positive) effect of uncertainty avoidance (long-term orientation) on audit report lag is maintained under different timely disclosure regime. Additional analysis conducted with respect to legal system shows that individualism becomes a significant predictor of audit delays with a significant negative effect for common law countries, while uncertainty avoidance has a positive effect on the same variable in civil law countries characterized by high level of discretion and secrecy.Practical implicationsThe results of this study suggest that national culture as an informal institution may complement formal institutions (e.g. financial markets) in promoting timely disclosure. For instance, foreign investors may view high uncertainty avoidance scores, in common law emerging economies, as an indicator of transparency and timely disclosure.Originality/valueThis study adds to the extant literature a further understanding of the impact of cultural dimensions on timely disclosure, as proxied by, audit report lag. The use of quantile regression approach shows how different timely disclosure regime may affect the association between masculinity, power distance and audit report lag.

Financing the cultural and creative industries through crowdfunding: the role of national cultural dimensions and policies

The trend towards digitalisation and technological innovation has reshaped the cultural and creative industries (CCIs) by changing the existing funding models and structures. The aim of this article is to explore the impact of cultural dimensions and policies on the adoption of reward-based crowdfunding as a new form of finance for firms in the CCIs in 12 different European countries during the 2015–2019 period. Our results show that national cultural dimensions and policies significantly affect the demand for cultural and creative crowdfunding. Specifically, the adoption of crowdfunding is broader in individualistic countries and in societies characterised by higher uncertainty avoidance, indulgence, short-term orientation, and lower levels of discrimination between genders. Furthermore, we find that the liberal welfare state model, characterised by limited government interference, market orientation, privatisation and a focus on self-responsibility, and the Southern European welfare model, based on a weak and inefficient state, increase the adoption of crowdfunding in the CCIs. The presence of a central ministry with cultural competence also increases the adoption of crowdfunding in the CCIs. Our findings show a U-shaped relationship between European grants and the demand for crowdfunding, mainly driven by a high or low European involvement within these sectors. We also identify a moderation effect of EU grants on the relationship between cultural dimensions and crowdfunding adoption, suggesting that the magnitude of this relationship depends on the amount of EU grants awarded in a specific country. As a robustness check, we run a set of Poisson regressions with correlated random effects (CREs), confirming our main results.

When do product crises hurt business? A meta-analytic investigation of negative publicity on consumer responses

This meta-analysis synthesizes 30 years of empirical work examining the impact of product crises on consumer evaluations. Prior research suggests that a product crisis will negatively affect consumer responses to that product. Extending this stream of research, we show that the magnitude of negative information effects is dependent on characteristics of the crisis, the product, and target consumers. Specifically, the deleterious effects of product crises are more pronounced when threat severity is high, the product failure is performance-related, consumer health is at issue, the product is directly involved in the incident, and the crisis occurs in a high power distance or high uncertainty avoidance cultures. We discuss theoretical contributions and practical implications of these findings for both marketing scholars and brand managers.

INSTITUTIONS, CULTURE, AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP: DIRECT, TOTAL, AND COMPLIANCE BURDEN EFFECTS

Empirical research on the effects of culture on national entrepreneurship rates has been inconclusive, leading to contradicting theories to explain these mixed results. Results have also been sensitive to which covariates are in the empirical analysis. Given that culture might affect entrepreneurship directly and indirectly through institutions, we model the Direct and Total Effects of culture on entrepreneurship accounting for possible endogeneity effects. We use recent innovations in econometrics that are robust to model selection errors to estimate the direct and Total Effects of culture on entrepreneurship across countries. Using GLOBE’s nine dimensions of culture on an expanded sample size, we find that Future Orientation, Gender Egalitarianism, Assertiveness, and Institutional Collectivism have robust positive Total Effects on national entrepreneurship. In contrast, Uncertainty Avoidance has a robust negative Total Effect on entrepreneurship. We also find that the Total Effect is greater than the Direct Effect for Assertiveness, Institutional Collectivism, and Uncertainty Avoidance and smaller than the Total Effect for the remaining—Performance Orientation, Future Orientation, Humane Orientation, In-Group Collectivism, Gender Egalitarianism, Power Distance. This suggests strong institutions that serve as a catalyst that engenders entrepreneurship in high Assertiveness, high Institutional, and high Uncertainty Avoidance cultures. Conversely, in high-Performance Orientation, Future Orientation, Humane Orientation, In-Group Collectivism, Gender Egalitarianism, and Power Distance countries, strong institutions can sometimes impose significant compliance burdens that dampen the natural cultural proclivity that supports institutions and entrepreneurship.

Privacy please: Power distance and people's responses to data breaches across countries.

Information security and data breaches are perhaps the biggest challenges that global businesses face in the digital economy. Although data breaches can cause significant harm to users, businesses, and society, there is significant individual and national variation in people’s responses to data breaches across markets. This research investigates power distance as an antecedent of people’s divergent reactions to data breaches. Eight studies using archival, correlational, and experimental methods find that high power distance makes users more willing to continue patronizing a business after a data breach (Studies 1–3). This is because they are more likely to believe that the business, not they themselves, owns the compromised data (Studies 4–5A) and, hence, do not reduce their transactions with the business. Making people believe that they (not the business) own the shared data attenuates this effect (Study 5B). Study 6 provides additional evidence for the underlying mechanism. Finally, Study 7 shows that high uncertainty avoidance acts as a moderator that mitigates the effect of power distance on willingness to continue patronizing a business after a data breach. Theoretical contributions to the international business literature and practitioner and policy insights are discussed.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1057/s41267-022-00519-5.

Thank Martin Luther that ciprofloxacin could cure your gonorrhoea? Ecological association between Protestantism and antimicrobial consumption in 30 European countries.

Background: Higher consumption of antimicrobials plays an important role in driving the higher prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in Southern compared to Northern Europe. Poor controls on corruption (CoC), high uncertainty avoidance (UA) and performance vs. cooperation orientation (POCO) of societies have been found to explain much of this higher consumption in Southern European countries. We hypothesized that these predictors were in turn influenced by the Protestant Reformation in the 16 th century onwards. Methods: We used structural equation modelling (SEM) to assess the relationships between country-level proportions being Protestant, CoC, UA, POCO and four markers of antimicrobial consumption in the community (all antibacterials, cephalosporin, macrolides and fluoroquinolones). Results: The proportion of a country that was Protestant was negatively correlated with the consumption of all antibacterials. SEM revealed that UA predicted all antibacterial consumption (direct effect coef. 0.15, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 0.04-0.26). The proportion Protestant exerted an indirect effect on consumption (coef. -0.13, 95% CI -0.21- -0.05). This effect was mediated predominantly via its effect on UA (direct effect coef. 0.15, 95% CI 0.04-0.26). The model explained 37% of the variation in consumption. Similar results were obtained for each of the other three classes of antimicrobials investigated. Conclusions: Our results are compatible with the theory that contemporary differences in antimicrobial consumption in Europe stem in part from cultural differences that emerged in the Reformation. These findings may explain the differential efficacy of similar antibiotic stewardship campaigns in Northern and Southern European populations.

The Role of Technical Support and Effective Communication to Successful Intervention Program on Palm Oil Mills

The palm oil mills demand the workers perform manual material still managing activities, which results in pain complaints leading to possible disability. These pain complaints can be resolved by implementing an intervention program involving all parties. Most previous studies only investigated the program implementation, and few addressed workers' behavioral responses. Organizational culture, which may affect the correlation between organizational climate and the effectiveness of intervention programs, has never been properly studied. This study aims to determine how the interaction between technical support and effective management-worker communication on the effectiveness of the intervention program by considering the influence of organizational culture. Understanding worker acceptance of intervention programs can determine how to implement them effectively. All these research variables were analyzed simultaneously using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) software, in which data were obtained from questionnaires given to 280 people working in 20 government-owned and private-owned palm oil mills in North Sumatra Province. The results show that technical support and effective communication affect the effective intervention program, but effective communication has a bigger effect. Organizational climate mediates the effects of technical support and effective communication on effective intervention programs. Organizational culture negatively moderates the correlation between organizational climate and effective intervention programs. The dimensions of organizational culture in palm oil mills are high power distance, high uncertainty avoidance, collectivism, masculinity, long-term orientation, and restraint.

Effects of perceived brand localness and perceived brand globalness on consumer behavioral intentions in emerging markets

PurposeThis study examined the effects of perceived brand localness (PBL) and perceived brand globalness (PBG) on consumer behavioral intentions (CBIs) (PI – purchase intentions, PP – price premium and WOM – word of mouth) via brand authenticity (BA). Additionally, this study considered the moderating impact of uncertainty avoidance (UA) and the control variable brand familiarity (BF) in emerging markets (EMs), specifically from China and Pakistan contexts.Design/methodology/approachThis study scrutinized 1,638 responses (China, n = 804 and Pakistan, n = 834) from consumers who used discussed local and global brands. The proposed hypotheses were evaluated using the PLS-SEM technique.FindingsThe findings indicated that the PBL and PBG favorably impacted BA, which significantly affected CBIs in both EMs. Specifically, PBL strongly influenced BA in China, whereas PBG strongly affected BA in Pakistan. The direct effects of PBL and PBG supported CBIs (PI, PP and WOM) in Pakistan. Likewise, PBL was significant on PP and WOM, whereas PBG was significant on PP in China. In Pakistan, UA had a significant moderating impact on PBL and BA. Similarly, UA acted as a positive moderator between BA and CBIs (PI and WOM) in Pakistan but was not supported in China.Research limitations/implicationsThis study examined only two EMs. Future studies may examine emerging vs developed markets. Theoretically, PBL and PBG are important brand signals associated with brand authenticity that communicate to mitigate information asymmetry in EMs. Likewise, brand authenticity was recognized as a positive signal that effectively corresponds to CBIs (in terms of their PI, PP, WOM) by fulfilling brand promises in both EMs. Additionally, UA was proved an effective moderator, improving consumer perceptions of brand authenticity about local brands and increasing PI and WOM toward perceived authentic brands in Pakistan.Practical implicationsThis research revealed important recommendations to help local and global managers in developing and executing several branding strategies in EMs (China and Pakistan). Practically, by improving the brand's localness and globalness, local and global managers may successfully position their brands to influence consumers' perceptions in EMs. Similarly, brand authenticity is a vital positioning tool for managers that favorably influence consumer behavior. Additionally, managers can segment and target their markets by classifying high and low UA consumers, particularly in Pakistan.Originality/valueFollowing signaling theory, this is the first study that contributes toward CBIs in EMs via brand authenticity and considering cultural factors (uncertainty avoidance) from the domestic and international branding perspectives.

Does global climate risk encourage companies to take more risks?

This paper employs a large international sample of 167,923 firm-year observations across 43 countries spanning 2001–2016 and finds that both annual and long-run climate risks have significantly positive impacts on corporate risk-taking, which is regarded as value-enhancing. Compared to long-run climate risk, annual climate risk plays a more dominant role. Moreover, we find high individualism and low uncertainty avoidance contribute to the positive effect of climate risk on corporate risk-taking. Compared to larger firms, smaller firms are more motivated to take on more risks when exposed to climate risks. Insurance provides protection for companies to take more risks. Also, country-level corporate governance is found to enhance the positive impacts of climate risks on corporate risk-taking. In addition, after taking endogeneity issues into account and conducting robustness tests, our primary conclusions remain.

Which Combinations of Human Resource Management and National Culture Optimize Government Effectiveness?

Despite the need for culturally-grounded public sector management practices, only a few studies have empirically investigated the compatibility between HRM practices and national culture. This study used fsQCA to investigate ‘bundles’ of HRM practices (recruitment, appraisal, and compensation) and Hofstede’s original four dimensions of national culture as antecedent conditions for government effectiveness in 30 OECD countries. We found that performance-based appraisal, compensation and informal recruitment form a causal relationship with high individualism and low uncertainty avoidance for stronger government effectiveness. The results imply that local national culture is an important context for the transferability of public management practices.

Democracy, national culture and greenhouse gas emissions: An international study

AbstractThis study examines whether a country's level of democracy is associated with greenhouse gas emission intensity of corporations and if national culture influences this association. Using cross‐country evidence, we find that firms operating in countries with strong democratic institutions are negatively associated with carbon emission intensity controlling for other country‐level variables. Democracy also moderates the positive effect of individualistic cultures on greenhouse gas emission intensity, whereas countries with high uncertainty avoidance and indulgence are associated with high emissions despite high democratic scores. That is, while the effects of democracy and culture on greenhouse gas emission intensity supplement each other, culture shapes a firm's strategy on environmental matters to a greater extent than democracy. The results are robust to alternative variable measurement.

Do investors penalize the firms disclosing higher environmental performance? a cross cultural evidence

Climate change discourse integrates 3Ps – people, planet, and profit. However, we do not find any empirical study that integrates 3Ps. Therefore, using a large global panel dataset from 46 countries, this study intends to fill this gap by providing empirical evidence about investors’ value proposition of corporate climate performance in different cultural environments. The results show that Hofstede’s cultural dimensions affect corporate climate performance and its market pricing. We find that in cultures with high power distance, low individualism, high masculinity, high uncertainty avoidance, high long-term orientation, and high restraint, the investors generally penalize the firms disclosing higher environmental performance. Strangely enough, corporate waste production is universally value irrelevant. Our results indicate some policy implications.

The Nexus between Uncertainty Avoidance Culture and Risk-taking Behaviour in Entrepreneurial Firms’ Decision Making

Abstract Purpose: The concerted effect of national culture and risk-taking behaviour of individuals on decision-making has not been given much attention in the literature. This paper, thus, attempts to investigate how the two variables, separately and jointly, affect the decision-making of firms. Methodology: The review pursues systematic literature review methodology. The keywords constituted in a series of search queries include risk-taking, or risk-taking behaviour, risk taking propensity, risk aversion, uncertainty avoidance, uncertainty avoidance national culture, fear of unknown or future, and uncertainty avoidance culture and risk-taking. The review of the studies addresses more than thirty-five countries over the years 1975–2021. Findings: The review result re-boosts the existing negative relationship between a high uncertainty avoidance culture and risk-taking behaviour. When the level of risk-taking is increased, the effect of uncertainty avoidance culture gets decreased, which thereof helps to reduce resistance to change in firms. The latter institutes a greater fear of failure, lower level of ambition, and less tolerance for ambiguity that result in low risk-taking appetite. Their concurrent effect is realized in various decision-making contexts including firms’ entry and investment decisions, customer buying decisions, self – versus group decisions, and policy decisions. Value Added: As a result, firms may need to consider the risk-taking behaviour and uncertainty avoidance culture of employees for certain jobs, consumers for marketing, managers for an international assignment in risky positions, and of individual countries for business expansion. The study claims to have added significant value to the practical and theoretical discourse of uncertainty avoidance national culture and risk-taking behaviour in business decision-making scenarios.

How consumer uncertainty intervene country of origin image and consumer purchase intention? The moderating role of brand image

PurposeCountry of origin is a well-studied topic for developed countries that have a favourable image. However, how country of origin image affects the consumers of an emerging country on a frontier market with high uncertainty avoidance still needs to be shed light. Therefore, this study investigated the relationship of country of origin image with consumer purchase intention through consumer uncertainty. The study further explored the conditional effect of brand image between country of origin and consumer uncertainty.Design/methodology/approachThe data for this study was collected from 400 Pakistani consumers. As this study assessed purchase intentions and consumer uncertainty related to high technology products of China, therefore, the consumers of the Huawei brand were selected.FindingsThe findings revealed a negative influence of country of origin image on consumer purchase intentions both directly and indirectly through consumer uncertainty. Furthermore, the positive brand image of high tech products was found to moderate the effect of country of origin image on consumer uncertainty.Originality/valueThis study is the first of its kind that explores the intervening role of consumer uncertainty between country of origin image and consumer purchase intention in an emerging market. In addition, the study highlights the importance of strong brand image as it buffers consumer uncertainty because of stereotypes.

How Do National Cultures Affect Quality of Life in Europe During the COVID-19 Pandemic?

Objectives: This study aimed to explore the six cultural dimensions of Geert Hofstede that affect perceptions of quality of life in 26 European countries during the COVID-19 pandemic (April 2020–March 2021): (1) Quality of life, (2) Democracy and trust, (3) Working during COVID-19, (4) Financial situation, (5) Support during COVID-19, and (6) Health care during COVID-19. Many studies are not conclusive on which dimensions of national culture affect the spread and death rate of COVID-19. The researchers, therefore, consider that studying the pandemic from the perception of quality can prevent its spread and contribute to the care and security of people affected by COVID-19. This study may be another way of providing information to those stakeholders. Method: To determine which aspects of culture affect the quality of life of Europeans during the COVID-19 pandemic, the researchers analyzed data through stepwise multiple regression analysis to predict the relationship between independent variables (cultural dimensions) and dependent variables (perceptions of the quality of life). Findings: It was found that during the COVID-19 pandemic, countries with higher power distance and higher uncertainty avoidance had a lower quality of life in several dimensions, mainly in Eastern European countries and Latin European countries (France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain). In the Nordic or Scandinavian countries with higher levels of indulgence, people were more satisfied with their quality of life in spite of the COVID-19 epidemic. Novelty/Improvement:The results may inform policy-makers and stakeholders on how national cultures have both positive (i.e., indulgent and long-term) and negative (high power distance and high uncertainty avoidance) effects on the quality of life of Europeans during the COVID-19 pandemic. There should be (1) short-term measures to provide equal economic measures and public health assistance to reduce anxiety (reduce high power distance and high uncertainty avoidance), (2) medium-term measures to promote education and training to prepare people for new modes of working in the future (decrease high uncertainty avoidance), and (3) long-term measures to cultivate cultures to save for the future and to be optimistic and happy, both mentally and physically (increase long term orientation and indulgence). Doi: 10.28991/esj-2022-SPER-02 Full Text: PDF

Do leaders have an influence on strengthening entrepreneurial orientation? Empirical evidence from SMEs of Turkish techno-parks

PurposeIn this study, the authors aim to test the reflections of two so-called universal leadership styles -paternalistic leadership (PL) and transformational leadership (TL)- on entrepreneurial orientation (EO) and ultimately on firm performance (FP) within the context of SMEs of a developing country, Turkey. Moreover, examining the contingency of uncertainty avoidance (UA) on the relationship between EO and firm performance is another aim of the study.Design/methodology/approachIn this explanatory cross-sectional study, by studying a dataset of 345 small and medium-sized (SME) Techno-park companies in Turkey based on using the Partial Least Squares (PLS) method, the authors try to examine the antecedent role of PL and TL on EO and ultimately on FP. Moreover, we followed a mediation procedure to reveal the mediator role of EO on the relationship between leadership style and firm performance. Finally, the authors also conducted a moderation analysis through SmartPLS 3.0 to explore the contingency of UA on the relationship between EO and firm performance.FindingsStudy results indicate that TL is a significant antecedent of EO that results in higher firm performance. However, while PL has a negative impact on entrepreneurial orientation, the results provide no statistical evidence in support of a significant relationship between PL and firm performance. Moreover, the findings indicate that the higher UA, the weaker the relationship between EO and firm performance.Practical implicationsManagers, following a TL approach, can successfully encourage their subordinates to be innovative and creative. Transformational leaders are conducive to both entrepreneurship and firm performance within the context of technology-based startups. Besides, avoiding the risks and uncertainties naturally weakens the consequences of EO. Hence, EO, as an essential intangible resource, requires a proper cultural context to result in a competitive advantage.Originality/valueThis research provides a comprehensive understanding regarding the interrelationships amongst transformational and paternalist leadership styles, EO and firm performance within an UA context in Small Business and Technology Development Centers (SBTDCs) and Techno-parks. To the best of the authors' knowledge, no other researcher has studied those links in a holistic manner in general, particularly on the SMEs of Techno-park firms of a developing Eastern country. The findings significantly enrich the literature on paternalist leadership and entrepreneurship orientation in a cultural context.

Antecedents to the Adoption of Mobile Payment in China and Italy: an Integration of UTAUT2 and Innovation Resistance Theory

This research aims to investigate the adoption gap in mobile payment systems between Italy and China, focusing on users’ intention to adopt mobile payment. The theoretical framing considers both drivers and barriers when combines the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology 2 (UTAUT2) with innovation resistance theory (IRT). To empirically verify the proposed model, this study gathers primary data through a web-based, self-administered survey. To analyze the data, we use structural equation modeling, and to test for significant differences between the two groups we run multi-group analysis. The respondents in Italy and China present different behaviors. Social influence plays a significant role in cultures with high uncertainty avoidance, such as Italy. The tradition barrier is the only significant barrier to the adoption of mobile payment.