Higher Socioeconomic Status Mothers Research Articles

Once and Again : History of Rearing Experiences and Psychosocial Parenting Resources at Six Months in Primiparous Mothers.

Animal and human studies suggest that parenting style is transmitted from one generation to the next. The hypotheses of this study were that (1) a mother's rearing experiences (G1) would predict her own parenting resources (G2) and (2) current maternal mood, motivation to care for her offspring, and relationship with her parents would underlie this association. In a subsample of 201 first-time mothers participating in the longitudinal Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment project, we assessed a mother's own childhood maltreatment and rearing experiences (G1) using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and the Parental Bonding Instrument. At 6months postpartum, mothers completed questionnaires on parenting stress (G2), symptoms of depression, maternal motivation, and current relationship with their own parents. The sample consisted of mostly high socioeconomic status mothers recruited from Montréal (n = 135) or Hamilton (n = 66), Canada, with an age range from 18 to 43years (M = 29.41, SD = 4.85years). More severe maltreatment and less supportive rearing by the mother's parents (G1) predicted increased parenting stress at 6months (G2). These associations were mediated through distinct psychosocial pathways: maltreatment (G1) on parenting stress (G2) through symptoms of depression (Z = 2.297; p = .022); maternal rearing (G1) on parenting stress (G2) through maternal motivation (Z = -2.155; p = .031) and symptoms of depression (Z = -1.842; p = .065); and paternal rearing (G1) on parenting stress (G2) through current relationship with the father (Z = -2.617; p = .009). Maternal rearing experiences predict a mother's own parenting resources though distinct psychosocial pathways, including depressed mood, maternal motivation, and social support.

“We were on our own”: Mothers' experiences navigating the fragmented system of professional care for autism

Autism is a developmental disorder that emerges in early childhood. Treatments for autism span a wide variety of professionals and paraprofessionals in the medical and educational realms. This article draws on data from a survey of 620 parents of autistic children, including 385 written narratives, to examine the experiences of mothers as they engage with this fragmented system of professional care for children with autism. Findings suggest that engagement with treatments sent families into a complex and confusing universe of diagnosis and treatment. The fragmentation of autism's professional jurisdiction between the medical and educational systems meant that mothers struggled to find comprehensive professional care that met the standards recommended by leading medical research organizations. Many mothers found it necessary to reduce their workforce participation in order to obtain and maintain their children's treatment regimes, a phenomenon that transcended social class. However, the consequences of reducing work had differential impacts on families. While married and high socioeconomic status mothers were more insulated from the potential negative effects of losing one partner's income, single and low SES mothers experienced greater precarity. These findings connect the structure and arrangement of professional jurisdictions to the experiences of parents, suggesting ways that the fragmentation of professional care for autism can have negative impacts for women, single mothers, and low SES families.

Does Mothers' Self-Construal Contribute to Parenting Beyond Socioeconomic Status and Maternal Efficacy? an Exploratory Study of Turkish Mothers.

This study examined the relative contribution of mothers’ self-construal to parenting above and beyond family socioeconomic status (SES) and maternal efficacy beliefs about parenting. A total of 58 Turkish mothers and their preschool-aged children participated in dyadic tasks in the laboratory setting. For the measurement of parenting, direct behavioral observations of mother–child interactions in three interaction contexts were utilized, and mother ratings of emotion socialization were obtained. Mothers also reported on their parenting efficacy, self-construal, child temperament, and family demographics. Results revealed a more balanced endorsement of autonomous and relational self-characteristics as well as more sensitive parenting among higher SES mothers. Furthermore, mothers’ self-construal contributed unique variance to the prediction of sensitive parenting over and above SES, maternal efficacy and child temperament. Yet, in the prediction of negatively controlling parenting, mothers’ self-construal did not account for unique variance. Lower parenting efficacy and lower SES were the only predictors of punishing, overriding, and distress magnifying responses. Finally, results indicated a marginally significant indirect effect from SES to sensitive parenting via autonomous-related self-construal, controlling for the indirect effect of maternal efficacy.

The Association of Health Insurance with institutional delivery and access to skilled birth attendants: evidence from the Kenya Demographic and health survey 2008\u201309

BackgroundHealthcare financing through health insurance is gaining traction as developing countries strive to achieve universal health coverage and address the limited access to critical health services for specific populations including pregnant women and their children. However, these reforms are taking place despite limited evaluation of impact of health insurance on maternal health in developing countries including Kenya. In this study we evaluate the association of health insurance with access and utilization of obstetric delivery health services for pregnant women in Kenya.MethodsNationally representative data from the Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008–09 was used in this study. 4082 pregnant women with outcomes of interest - Institutional delivery (Yes/No – delivery at hospital, dispensary, maternity home, and clinic) and access to skilled birth attendants (help by a nurse, doctor, or trained midwife at delivery) were selected from 8444 women ages 15–49 years. Linear and logistic regression, and propensity score adjustment are used to estimate the causal association of enrollment in insurance on obstetric health outcomes.ResultsMothers with insurance are 23 percentage points (p < 0.01) more likely to deliver at an institution and 20 percentages points (p < 0.01) more likely have access to skilled birth attendants compared to those not insured. In addition mothers of lower socio-economic status benefit more from enrollment in insurance compared to mothers of higher socio-economic status. For both institutional delivery and access to skilled birth attendants, the average difference of the association of insurance enrollment compared to not enrolling for those of low SES is 23 percentage points (p < 0.01), and 6 percentage points (p < 0.01) for those of higher SES.ConclusionsEnrolling in health insurance is associated with increased access and utilization of obstetric delivery health services for pregnant women. Notably, those of lower socio-economic status seem to benefit the most from enrollment in insurance.

Quantity of Maternal Time and Child and Adolescent Development: Response to Kalil and Mayer (2016) and to Waldfogel (2016)

Our study of the association between maternal time and developmental outcomes of children and adolescents in the April 2015 issue of Journal of Marriage and Family (Milkie, Nomaguchi, & Denny, 2015a) has drawn much attention, which reflects how strongly researchers and the public care about the relationship between mothers' time and children's well-being. We appreciate the commentaries by Waldfogel (2016) and Kalil and Mayer (2016). Their insights will stimulate research that will further our understanding of maternal and parental time and their relationship to children's and adolescents' well-being.Waldfogel urges investigation of variations in the role of maternal time in influencing child outcomes by social and demographic contexts and suggests examining alternatives to maternal time. We agree and expand on her suggestions in this response. Kalil and Mayer argue that the theoretical framework sets up a straw man. We disagree and briefly articulate how our study derives from aspects of intensive-mothering ideology. Kalil and Mayer emphasize the centrality of mothers' social statuses in shaping children's development and the importance of quality activities for children. These are entirely consistent our conclusions. They are misguided about the interpretation of or quantity of time, however. This is understandable given the complexity of assessing children's time with mothers.In responding to these commentaries, we recap intensive-mothering ideology and the assumptions implied by it. Then we discuss the theoretical and methodological challenges that the commentaries identify, which future research should consider carefully: distinguishing between quantity time and quality of time or activities; conceptualizing children's time mothers compared to alternative time use arrangements; social class and time children; measurement and selection issues; variations by child age, family structure, and child gender; and the role of maternal employment.Intensive Mothering and Its AssumptionsIntensive-mothering ideology places children at the center of mothers' lives and suggests that they require vast amounts of time, effort, and energy from individual mothers (Hallstein, 2006; Hays, 1996). The idea that mothers' time is more valuable for children than is time other caregivers is also an aspect of intensive mothering. Although Kalil and Mayer contend that lower socioeconomic status (SES) mothers do not believe in intensive mothering, studies have shown that they are subject to the same cultural ideal of motherhood as are higher SES mothers (Hays, 1996). Lower SES mothers express the importance of being there and sacrifice as the virtue of good mothering (Damaske, 2011; Edin & Kefalas, 2005; Macdonald, 2009), some of the central elements of intensive-mothering ideology. Regardless of variations in how much people buy into this ideology, it is dominant in the United States (Hays, 1996). Moreover, the debates on maternal employment and the rich history of studying its effects on children deriving from sociological and developmental theories are closely linked to the assumption that the lower quantity of mothers' time allocations to child care is detrimental for children (Bianchi, 2000).Kalil and Mayer repeatedly question our statement on the consequences of intensive mothering ideology for mothers' distress, a topic that motivated the present analysis but was not the focus of it. It is important to distinguish between the ideology of intensive mothering, the actual practice of parenting, and feelings about time children. Intensive-mothering ideology places very high standards on mothers in terms of the appropriate amount of time they should spend their children, which may link to the fact that nearly half of mothers feel as if they are not spending enough time children (Milkie, Mattingly, Nomaguchi, Bianchi, & Robinson, 2004). Importantly, our prior work shows that the feeling of a time deficit children is a strong predictor of poorer maternal well-being (Milkie, Kendig, Nomaguchi, & Denny, 2010; Nomaguchi, Milkie, & Bianchi, 2005). …

Maternal overweight/obesity characteristics and child anthropometric status in Jos, Nigeria.

Objective:This study is to determine the pattern of overweight and obesity and its relationship with childhood anthropometric status in Nigeria.Materials and Methods:This cross-sectional study was conducted in Jos, Nigeria. Interviewer administered questionnaire was used in data collection. Maternal and child anthropometric measurements were obtained using standard WHO methods. Child anthropometric Z scores were obtained from WHO Anthroplus while BMI of mothers were also determined. Totally, 262 mother-child pairs were recruited.Results:Mean maternal age and mean child age were 30.8 ± 6.3 yrs (15-47 yrs) and 22.3 ± 18.7 months (3-72 months). Prevalence of maternal underweight, overweight and obesity was 4.2% (11/262), 29.4% (77/262) and 25.9% (68/262), respectively. Child overweight/obesity was 5.4% (14/262), severe under-nutrition 5.7% (15/262). Mean maternal BMI was higher in the older, more educated and higher socioeconomic status (SES). Child mean birth-weight, weight-for-age Z-score and BMI-for-age Z-score (BAZ) were higher among mothers with BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2. All large-for-age babies were in mothers with maternal BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2. Childhood over-nutrition was more common in maternal BMI of ≥25 kg/m2. Overall, BAZ was directly related with maternal BMI, maternal age and birth-weight, although it was inversely related with maternal BM I ≥ 25 kg/m2.Conclusion:Higher BMI is seen in educated and higher SES mothers and this impact on childhood anthropometry.

Social inequalities in the utilization of maternal care in Bangladesh: Have they widened or narrowed in recent years?

BackgroundNotwithstanding the significant progress in reducing maternal mortality in recent years, social inequalities in the utilization of maternal care continue to be a challenge in Bangladesh. In this study, we aim to provide a comprehensive analysis of trends in social inequalities in utilization of antenatal care (ANC), facility based delivery (FBD), and skilled birth attendance (SBA) in Bangladesh between 1995 and 2010.MethodsData were extracted from the five latest rounds of Bangladesh Demographic Health Surveys (BDHS). The Theil index (T) and between-group variance (BGV) were used to calculate relative and absolute disparities in the utilization of three measures (ANC, FBD, and SBA) of maternal care across six administrative regions. The relative and slope indices of inequality (RII and SII, respectively) were also used to calculate wealth- and education-based inequality in the utilization of maternal care.ResultsThe results of the T-index suggest that relative inequality in SBA has declined by 0.2% per year. Nevertheless, the estimated BGV demonstrated that absolute inequalities in all three measures of maternal care have increased across administrative divisions. For all three measures of maternal care, the RII and SII indicated consistent socioeconomic inequalities favouring wealthier and more educated women. The adjusted RII suggested that wealth- and education-related inequalities for ANC declined by 9% and 6%, respectively, per year during the study period. The adjusted SII, however, showed that wealth- and education-related inequalities for FBD increased by 0.6% per year.ConclusionsAlthough socially disadvantaged mothers increased their utilization of care relative to mothers of higher socioeconomic status, the absolute gap in utilization of care between socioeconomic groups has increased over time. Our findings indicate that wealthier and more educated women, as well as those living in urban areas, are the major users of ANC, FBD and SBA in Bangladesh. Thus, priority focus should be given to implementing and evaluating interventions that benefit women who are poorer, less educated and live in rural areas.

Breastfeeding in African Americans may not depend on sleep arrangement: a mixed-methods study.

Despite high bedsharing rates, breastfeeding rates are low among African Americans. Describe the association between breastfeeding and bedsharing; elucidate barriers to breastfeeding in African Americans. African American mothers with infants <6 months were recruited for this cross-sectional, mixed-methods study and completed an infant care practices survey. A subgroup participated in focus groups or individual interviews. A total of 412 completed the survey; 83 participated in a focus group or interview. Lower socioeconomic status mothers were more likely to breastfeed exclusively or at all if they bedshared (P = .02 and P = .01, respectively). Bedsharing was not associated with breastfeeding among higher socioeconomic status mothers. Breast pain, lack of support, and maternal skepticism about breastfeeding benefits were barriers; the latter was a recurrent theme among nonbreastfeeding mothers. While bedsharing is associated with breastfeeding in lower socioeconomic groups, it is not in higher socioeconomic African American groups. Skepticism about breastfeeding benefits may contribute to low breastfeeding rates in African Americans.

Knowledge and attitude of Saudi mothers towards their preschool children's oral health.

To determine knowledge and attitude of Saudi mothers towards their preschool children's oral health. One hundred and one mothers (of children aged 16 to 40 months) attending well-baby clinics at Security Forces Hospital Polyclinics in Makkah Al-Mukarrama participated in the study. A questionnaire was used to collect the required information. A great majority (92.1%) of the mothers agreed that "baby teeth are important for child's general health. Similarly, 90.1% of the mothers agreed that "using fluoridated toothpaste helps to prevent tooth decay". About four in every ten mothers (43.6%) agreed that a child should be allowed to use a bottle at-will when he/she becomes able to hold it. More than half of the mothers (54.5%) agreed that letting baby sleep with bottle still in the mouth was of no harm to teeth. A significantly (p=0.04) higher percentage of high Socioeconomic status (SES) mothers as compared to middle SES mothers (85.9% versus 55.6%) agreed that "frequent feeding with milk or milk formula is of no harm to baby's teeth". A significantly (p=003) higher percentage of the middle SES mothers as compared to high SES mothers (66.7% versus 17.4%) agreed that a child should only visit a dentist in case of a dental pain/problem. The mothers need to be educated in several important areas related to feeding, diet and first dental check-up visit of their children.

Infant feeding practices and maternal socio-demographic factors that influence practice of exclusive breastfeeding among mothers in Nnewi South-East Nigeria: a cross-sectional and analytical study.

BackgroundMalnutrition is an underlying factor in more than 50% of the major cause of infant mortality-Pneumonia, diarrhoeal disease and measles which account for 70% of infant mortality. Therefore, programs to promote adequate nutrition for age can help reduce mortality from these disease conditions and indispensible to achievement of MDG 4.AimTo describe the feeding practices of infants below six months of age and determine maternal socio-demographic factors that influences the practice of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) among mothers in Nnewi, south-east Nigeria.MethodsFour hundred mother-infant pairs attending the infant welfare clinic of the Nnamdi Azikiwe University teaching hospital (NAUTH) during 2012 were consecutively recruited after meeting the study inclusion criteria. Data on breastfeeding were based on infant feeding practice in the previous 24 hours. Exclusive breastfeeding was defined as infant feeding with only breast milk.ResultsAwareness (95.3%) and knowledge (82.0%) of EBF was high among surveyed mother but the practice of EBF (33.5%) was very low. Positive attitude towards EBF practice was shown by many (71.0%) of surveyed mothers. EBF practice decreased with increasing infant age, OR 0.72 (95% CI 0.34, 1.51) for 1–2 months, OR 0.58 (95% CI 0.23, 1.44) for 3–4 months and OR 0.20 (95% CI 0.06, 0.73) for 5–6 months compared to infants < 1 month old. Maternal education, socioeconomic class, mode of delivery and infants first feed were retained as important maternal predictors of EBF practice after adjustment for confounders. Decreased likelihood of EBF practice was found among mothers of lower educational attainment, OR 0.33 (95% CI 0.13, 0.81), mothers who delivered through caesarean section, OR 0.38 (95% CI 0.18, 0.84), mothers of higher socio-economic status [(middle class, OR 0.46 (95% CI 0.22, 0.99) and upper class, OR 0.32 (95% CI 0.14, 0.74)] while increased likelihood of EBF practice was seen in mothers who gave their infants breast milk as their first feed, OR 3.36 (95% CI 1.75, 6.66).ConclusionKnowledge and awareness does not translate to practice of EBF. More effort by health workers and policy makers should be directed to mothers along the fault lines to encourage the practice of EBF.

Maternal depression and socio-economic status moderate the parenting style/child obesity association

The purpose of the study was to test the moderating influence of two risk factors, maternal depression and socio-economic status (SES), on the association between authoritarian and permissive parenting styles and child obesity. Correlational, cross-sectional study. Parenting style was measured with the Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire (PSDQ). Maternal depression was measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). BMI-for-age percentile was used to categorize children by weight status (children with BMI-for-age > or = 95th percentile were classified as obese). SES was computed from parent education and occupational status using the four-factor Hollingshead index. Rural public schools in a mid-western state in the USA. One hundred and seventy-six mothers of first-grade children (ninety-one boys, eighty-five girls) enrolled in rural public schools. Both maternal depression and SES were found to moderate the permissive parenting style/child obesity association, but not the authoritarian/child obesity association. For depressed mothers, but not for non-depressed mothers, more permissive parenting was predictive of child obesity. Similarly more permissive parenting was predictive of child obesity among higher SES mothers, but not for lower SES mothers. Maternal depression and SES interact with permissive parenting style to predict child obesity. Future research should examine the relationship among these variables using a longitudinal design.

Neighbourhood socioeconomic status, maternal education and adverse birth outcomes among mothers living near highways

Background:Residential proximity to highways is a potential proxy for exposure to traffic-related pollution that has been linked to adverse birth outcomes. We evaluated whether proximity to highway interacts with individual...

Rising Infant Mortality in Delaware: An Examination of Racial Differences in Secular Trends

Recent increases in the Delaware Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) have been attributed to a rise in the mortality of very low birth weight (VLBW, <1500 g) infants born to mothers of higher socioeconomic status. This study examines whether the determinants of infant mortality trends in Delaware vary by race. Linked birth/infant death cohort files for the two periods 1993-1997 and 1998-2002 were used to evaluate the determinants of infant mortality trends separately for White and Black racial groups. Kitagawa analyses determined the components of race-specific infant mortality trends attributable to changes in both the birthweight distribution and birthweight-specific mortality rates. Maternal characteristics were examined to identify factors associated with IMR changes. Between the two time periods, infant mortality increased 23% among White infants and 17% among Black infants. For both races, the infant mortality increase was explained by increases in the incidence and mortality of VLBW infants, specifically below <500 grams for Blacks and <1,000 grams for Whites. The increased incidence of VLBW deliveries was statistically significant only among Whites, almost 40% of which was explained by an increase in multiple births. For both Whites and Blacks, the increase in VLBW mortality occurred mainly among births to more traditionally advantaged women who were twenty or older, at least high school educated, married, privately insured, had received first trimester prenatal care, and those who delivered multiple births. These findings suggest that conventional strategies of increasing access to prenatal care among disadvantaged women may be insufficient to reverse recent IMR increases in Delaware, irrespective of race. Future efforts should focus on understanding the causes of the increased infant mortality associated with higher socioeconomic status, including changes in assisted reproductive technology utilization, maternal health status, and obstetric practice.

Determinants of birthweight inequalities: Population‐based study

The aim of this paper is to study the whole spectrum of birthweight in a population-based birth cohort in order to document the role played by social factors, which complement physiological and behavioural factors, in the development of birthweight inequalities at the population level. The analyses were performed with data from the 'Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development 1998-2002 (QLSCD)'. The study follows a representative sample (n = 2103) of the children born in 1998 in the Canadian province of Québec. Multivariate analyses adjusted for gestational age and mother's age indicate that mean birthweight was higher for boys than girls; improved with birth rank, mother's body mass index (BMI), and family socioeconomic status; and was lower for children of smoking mothers. Compared with children born to non-smoking mothers of higher socioeconomic status, the odds of having a low birthweight were between 6 and 12 times higher for children born to smoking mothers of lower or middle socioeconomic status. When maternal smoking status and mother's BMI are combined, socioeconomic status could still be seen to have a positive effect on mean birthweight except for overweight or obese smoking mothers, among whom the relationship between socioeconomic status and mean birthweight was reversed. In families of lower socioeconomic status, maternal smoking was the most important factor in birthweight inequalities, and in families of higher socioeconomic status, mother's BMI was the most important factor in birthweight inequalities. This research is not only important for children in developed nations, but also for those in developing countries, where high birthweight and obesity are becoming more prevalent.

Infant care in England: mothers’ aspirations, experiences, satisfaction and caregiver relationships

This paper investigates non‐maternal infant care in the first year of life, examining the relationships between child care ideals, attitudinal, sociodemographic and psychological characteristics of mothers at three months postpartum and their child care experiences at 10 months. Predictors of child care use, satisfaction with non‐maternal care and confidence in the relationship and communication with caregivers are examined. Realising ideals predicted more hours of child care use, although not greater satisfaction. Those with the father or a grandparent as the caregiver were more satisfied, as were mothers with more progressive attitudes to child rearing and to maternal employment. Higher socioeconomic status mothers and those using nurseries were less satisfied. Relationships with caregivers were poorer for those who believed that maternal employment may have more negative consequences for children.

Maternal employment and overweight children

This paper seeks to determine whether a causal relationship exists between maternal employment and childhood weight problems. We use matched mother–child data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) and employ econometric techniques to control for observable and unobservable differences across individuals and families that may influence both children’s weight and their mothers’ work patterns. Our results indicate that a child is more likely to be overweight if his/her mother worked more hours per week over the child’s life. Analyses by subgroups show that it is higher socioeconomic status mothers whose work intensity is particularly deleterious for their children’s overweight status.

PARENTAL INFLUENCE ON PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN HISPANIC AND NON-HISPANIC WHITE CHILDREN

Children are increasingly less active and thus are at increased risk for obesity and related diseases. The purpose of this study was to identify social, psychological and environmental determinants of 3–5th grade Hispanic and non-Hispanic white (NHW), and high and low socioeconomic status (SES) children's physical activity. To predict children's physical activity levels we measured: 1) children's perceived athletic competence 2) parent prioritization of activity for themselves 3) parent ranking of the importance of physical activity 4) parent perceived family activity/recreation environment; and 5) parent physical activity. Physical activity was measured using uniaxial accelerometers in parents (51 non-Hispanic white, 48 Hispanic, 48 high SES and 51 low SES families) and their children over 7 days. Each predictor variable was explored for possible interaction between ethnicity and SES. Socioeconomic status had a greater influence on children's physical activity than ethnicity in this sample. Non-Hispanic white and high SES mothers scored higher on their perceived importance of family activity/recreation environment, prioritization of physical activity for themselves, and were more physically active than Hispanic and low SES mothers. High SES mothers had greater ranking of the importance of physical activity than low SES mothers. There was an interaction between SES and ethnicity across all mothers such that low SES Hispanic and high SES NHW mothers had greater prioritization of physical activity for themselves and total physical activity than high SES Hispanic and low SES NHW mothers. High SES mothers' valuation of physical activity was greater than low SES mothers. There were no differences in physical activity levels between Hispanic vs. NHW and high vs. low SES children, yet Hispanic and low SES children's BMIs were higher than NHW and high SES children's BMIs. There were no differences between Hispanic vs. NHW fathers' predictor variables nor did any of fathers' data relate to children's physical activity or perceived competence. High SES fathers had greater perceived family activity/recreation environment than low SES fathers. For all groups, children's physical activity was best predicted by children's perceived athletic competence and physical activity. These findings suggest that determinants of physical activity differ between Hispanic and non-Hispanic white families of differing socioeconomic status. Supported by ACSM Fellowship Fund Grant

Relationships between demographic variables and family dynamics of childbearing families.

In this study relationships between demographic variables and family dynamics of childbearing families in Finland were studied. The sample was 160 urban families expecting their first or second child in the third trimester of pregnancy. One-hundred and eighteen families participated in the study. The Family Dynamics Questionnaire (FDQ) and the Family Dynamics Measure (FDM) were used in this study. Most expectant parents reported their family was well-functioning. Mothers of higher socioeconomic status found more flexibility in their families than mothers of lower socioeconomic status. Fathers in families expecting their first baby reported more mutuality, role reciprocity and more stability than second-time fathers. The findings contribute cues for public health nurses and midwives regarding parity, socioeconomic status and family dynamics to provide more specific family guidance during the transition to parenthood. Realistic information on the changes in family dynamics after childbirth should be given to pregnant parents.

Adjustment of children and interaction of parent and child among single mothers in a disadvantaged South African community.

This study investigated the relationships among family status (intact vs single parent), socioeconomic status, parent-child interaction, and children's adjustment in a disadvantaged "Coloured" community in South Africa. Data were collected from 48 mothers, including 12 married mothers of higher socioeconomic status, 12 single mothers of higher socioeconomic status, 12 married mothers of low socioeconomic status, and 12 single mothers of low socioeconomic status. Low socioeconomic status, single mothers rated their children as significantly less adjusted than mothers in the other three groups. These and other findings suggest the importance of taking both family status and socioeconomic status into account. While the findings of this study are not conclusive, they could have implications for the "Coloured" community of South Africa and similar groups.