High-rise Building Fire Research Articles

Fire Safety Index for High-Rise Buildings in the Emirate of Sharjah, UAE

The purpose of this paper was to develop a fire index system for measuring the compliance of high-rise residential buildings with fire requirements in the Emirate of Sharjah, and also to develop an index system for measuring the fire response efficiency, which is linked the two indexes, and the higher the compliance rate, the greater chance of a successful response. The two systems depend on the automation of the firefighting system management processes using the techniques of the fourth industrial revolution, and they were developed based on consultation with subject matter experts in the field and used multiple methods, such as the analytic hierarchy process, failure mode effect, criticality analysis, and Delphi techniques. The main criteria of the indexes were identified as the fire risk assessment, fire suppression system, fire accident management, fire alarm system, fire extinguisher, employees, residents, service rooms, lifts, gas connections, waste, housekeeping, and evacuation facilities. Each main criterium was detailed in the sub-criteria and weighted to achieve the index for each sub-criteria based on the fire legislation in UAE, the fire response index (developed based on the high-rise building fire index), the category of the building in terms of floor numbers, and the distance between building and the fire station. The two index systems can contribute to improving emergency preparedness in high-rise residential buildings in the Emirate of Sharjah and are also considered as measurement indexes for compliance with fire requirements in the Emirate of Sharjah.

INVESTIGATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF TEACHING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF THE INVENTIVE TECHNOLOGY “EURONICS” ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CREATIVE POTENTIAL OF HIGH SCHOOL PUPILS

There is a problem of a gradual decrease in creative activity of a person: from 18–19% creatively active among first graders to 1% among high school students. And then the decrease occurs among students of higher educational institutions. Sociological studies were conducted in Ukraine, according to which one in seven engineers is an inventor under the age of 30, one in five from 31 to 40, one in four from 41 to 50, and one in two after 50. It is clear that in our time of scientific and technological progress and competitive struggle, this is unacceptable. As Shiryaeva’s research shows, thanks to learning the theory of invention, the creative potential of 56% of eighth-graders has increased. However, neither Shiryaeva nor other specialists in teaching students the basics of invention theory provided methods for developing the creative potential of high school students to create pioneering inventions. This second problem was overcome thanks to the creation of the “Evronika” technology and gaining experience in its use when preparing the team for participation in the Third All-Ukrainian Competition of Young Inventors. Analysis of the team’s solution to the problem of extinguishing fires in high-rise buildings allowed us to identify the main methodological creative tools needed by high school students to create pioneering inventions. With their use, a method of teaching students to create such inventions was developed. Approbation of the methodology confirmed the possibility of teaching students to create pioneering inventions, as evidenced by the patents they received in Ukraine and awards for winning international competitions among adult inventors. However, the monitoring of the development of their creative abilities by conducting control works at the beginning and at the end of training showed that the students did not have an awareness of the need to create pioneering inventions and they did not yet have the corresponding desire. Therefore, the task of further research is to identify the ways of forming such aspirations in high school students, as well as to develop a suitable teaching method with improvement of existing and development of new methodological tools of the theory of invention and methods of their application in the learning process.

Порядок документального подтверждения соответствия средств спасения людей при пожаре требованиям пожарной безопасности

PURPOSE. Advertising currently produced fire and rescue appliances demonstrates the advantages of their performance characteristics. This plays an important role in a market economy and highly competitive environment. At the same time, appliances for rescuing people must meet the requirements established for this specific product, i.e. have a document certifying compliance of the manufactured product with the legislative requirements in the field of technical regulation. Such a document is a compliance certificate or a compliance declaration. Using the example of a sectional evacuation appliance the modern process of documenting the compliance of a fire and rescue appliance with the requirements of technical regulations and standardization documents is analyzed. METHODS. When carrying out this work, theoretical methods such as classification, analysis, modeling and deduction were used. FINDINGS. The authors analyzed in detail individual forms of assessing the compliance of objects (products) under protection with fire safety requirements. It was established that a sectional evacuation appliance is to be assessed in terms of compliance with fire safety requirements in the form of confirming compliance of objects (products) under protection. It is hypothesized that the scheme for confirming the compliance of a sectional evacuation appliance will be carried out according to 4d scheme (for a batch of fire safety appliances or a single product), since choosing a scheme for declaring the conformity of fire safety appliances is carried out by the applicant on the basis of their own evidence and evidence obtained in a test laboratory. RESEARCH APPLICATION FIELD. The obtained research results may be useful to individuals or legal entities engaged in the production and (or) sale of means for rescuing people in case of fire in high-rise buildings. CONCLUSIONS. Available means of moving people to a fire-safe area in many cases may be the only way to save them. This opportunity is provided by special technical means that operate on external energy sources or work on the principle of smoothly reducing the energy of falling body weight from height. Taking this into account, it is especially important to assess the compliance of rescue appliances with the requirements of technical regulations, carrying out a full set of operations and conditions established by the conformity validation scheme before they are put into circulation.

Тактические особенности ликвидации пожаров в зданиях повышенной этажности

PURPOSE. The problem of prompt and efficient fire suppression in high-rise buildings is getting more relevant in view of increase in the number of floors in residential buildings nowadays. The aim of the given work is to conduct an analytical review and identify the main features of extinguishing fires in high-rise buildings with the help of technical means delivering extinguishing agents to the height. METHODS. The authors used methods of mathematical statistics, systems analysis and expert assessments. FINDINGS. The analysis of fires in multi-storey residential buildings in the Russian Federation made it possible to reveal the trend towards increase in fires in such buildings over the past few years. Kitchen and living rooms are still the main source of ignition. And the problem of delivering extinguishing agents to the height remains relevant. Three scenarios of fires for different floors were simulated and schemes for delivering extinguishing agents with the help of mobile means of fire extinguishment were proposed. Fire-fighting equipment and its weight necessary for extinguishing fires were calculated. The probability of the injury rate growth due to increased load on firemen while extinguishing fires at these facilities was brought out. RESEARCH APPLICATION FIELD. The outcomes of the research can be used when studying specifics of fire development in multi-storey residential buildings in order to further improve technical means of fire extinguishment. CONCLUSIONS. Developing and introducing “gentle” means for delivering extinguishing agents in enclosed spaces will allow minimizing damage from excessive water delivery onto fires, and improving ergonomic parameters of fire-fighting equipment will make it possible to speed up laying main and working lines and also to reduce the level of injuries among firefighters due to exhaustion.

تأثير المساحة الفاصلة بين الشقق على سرعة انتشار الحريق في الأبنية السكنية العالية

Fire accidents in high-rise residential buildings lead to great loss of life and property and constitute a serious threat to the difficulty of safe evacuation due to the presence of various flammable materials and high population density, so there are great challenges facing architects and specialists in order to improve and develop design methods to protect from fire and reduce losses. The space separating apartments can be a factor influencing the spread of fire, its development, and the speed of its transmission in tall residential buildings. To clarify this, the spread of fire was followed vertically and systematically by simulating the characteristics of fire spread for a 12-story building using the pyrosim program. The simulation results showed that the risk of fire spreading in tall residential buildings increases with the space separating apartments and that the effect of the depth of space is more obvious the greater the width of the space separating apartments. For separating spaces, and thus the research can contribute to choosing the optimal design to increase the chance of safe evacuation in the event of a fire in high-rise residential buildings.

Information model of power distribution IoT terminal for high-rise building electrical fire monitoring

Fires caused by electrical reasons such as short circuits and leakage in low-voltage distribution network lines account for a relatively large proportion of the high-rise building fires. Building an electrical fire monitoring system for high-rise buildings based on the Internet of Things (IoTs) technology can monitor electrical circuits in real-time and reduce electrical fires. Aiming at the interconnection and intercommunication of the information exchange of the IoT terminals in the electrical fire monitoring system of high-rise buildings, this paper firstly analyzes the functional communication requirements of the electrical fire monitoring system of high-rise buildings, and combined with the requirements of functional communication, the information model required for electrical quantity collection and non-electricity collection functions is studied based on IEC 61850, which is conducive to the fusion and application of low-voltage distribution network monitoring data and existing distribution automation system data. At the same time, the location information logical node is established by supplementing, which realizes the determination of the spatial position of the terminal and the sensor, the location of the fire source can be determined by analyzing and calculating according to the spatial location information and the spatiotemporal sequence of the detection information. Finally, the information modeling of different types of monitoring terminal equipment is carried out and the configuration suggestion based on SCL language is proposed. By realizing the integration of low-voltage terminal unit (LTU) into the system and the configuration of LTU, the standard system of IEC 61850 can be actually operated. A monitoring terminal based on the proposed information model has been developed and applied to a building in Wuhan.

Assessment of the possibility of using various fire extinguishing means in high-rise buildings

Introduction. To date, fires in high-rise buildings are one of the significant problems faced by fire protection units. Unique objects require a special approach in terms of fire safety and fire extinguishing. The most important task is to ensure the supply of extinguishing agents to the height using modern fire-fighting equipment and installations.Materials and methods.In September 2021, to conduct experimental scientific and tactical exercises on the roof of the Neva Towers tower, a program and methodology for supplying fire extinguishing agents in various ways to the height were developed. The following methods of feeding to height were considered: deployment using the equipment of a container for high-altitude firefighting, feeding from an installation with compression foam technology, feeding using a waterjet cutting unit “Cobra”.Theoretical bases. A theoretical assessment of the possibility of supplying extinguishing agents to a height with the help of new fire-rescue equipment confirmed the need for experimental scientific and tactical exercises on the roof of the Neva Towers tower.Results and discussions. As a result of the scientific and tactical exercises, the effectiveness of the use of new fire extinguishing systems with compression foam supply, as well as installations with waterjet cutting technology “Cobra” was proved. It was possible to provide a feed to a height of 350 m.Conclusions. To date, with the help of new fire extinguishing technologies, it has been experimentally proven that their use is most effective compared to “traditional” methods of supplying extinguishing agents. In the future, it is necessary to conduct more detailed studies of the hydrodynamic parameters of pumping and bag systems in order to develop recommendations for preliminary planning of the actions of forces and means of fire and rescue units.

Assessment of Maximum Possible Loss Caused by Fire in High-Rise Buildings Using the LOPA Method: A Case Study on Central Insurance Building of Iran

Background: Fire safety is one of the most important issues in high-rise buildings. The purpose of this study is to assess maximum possible loss in the fire in Central Insurance Building of Islamic Republic of Iran using the layer of protection analysis (LOPA) method.
 Method: In 2017, this analytical study was conducted on the 21-floor building of the Central Insurance in Iran. To identify the hazard sources and assess the maximum possible loss, the authors used the preliminary hazard list (PHL) and layer of protection analysis (LOPA) respectively. In addition, the analysis of the study data was performed based on the 10×10 risk assessment matrix.
 Results: The results of the PHL showed that 26 hazardous conditions and four major sources including structural engineering, fire alarm systems and fire extinguishers, design and maintenance of building safety, and behavioral habits were identified as main hazards of fire in the studied building. The application of the LOPA method showed that highest risk level was associated with the fire caused by the exhaust heat from the engine room (RL=48) and the emergency power generator diesel (RL=40), respectively.
 Conclusion: The findings of this study indicated that calculating the maximum possible loss in the fire of high-rise buildings can help to increase the safety factor. Moreover, the use of the two methods, PHL and LOPA, can be useful in these types of risk assessments.

Investigation and numerical reconstruction of a full-scale electric bicycle fire experiment in high-rise residential building

Electric bicycle (E-bike) fires have attracted more concerns recently in the field of fire safety science since several fatal fires occurred especially in residential buildings. This paper conducts a full-scale experiment of E-bike fire in a typical high-rise residential building of China. Fire and smoke characteristics as well as their influences on the residents’ safety and evacuation are studied. It was found that E-bike fire grows quite rapidly once ignited. Less smoke could spread into these residential rooms with closed door. Sealing the entrance door gap could effectively help to prevent the smoke. At the very first stage of the fire (around 4.5min from igniting), the residents could choose to evacuate downstairs. However, it is a better option to stay at home waiting for help during most of the fire period. Smoke from this fire did not exceed the height of the 10th floor in the staircase. Thus, for the residents on the 10th floor and above, to escape through the staircase upward to the building roof is another safe option. Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) was used to numerically reconstruct this fire. The numerical results show good agreement with the experiments. Based on accurate parameters and boundary conditions, FDS is verified to be feasible to conduct numerical reconstruction of E-bike fires for the purpose of assisting fire investigation.

MENINGKATKAN PENGETAHUAN MITIGASI BENCANA KEBAKARAN DI PANTI ASUHAN TANJUNG BARAT

A disaster is an unexpected event for everyone, it is impossible to know when and where the disaster will come, disaster will always stalk us no matter adults, elderly, or children. Fire is a type of disaster that can have a major impact on all living things. Mitigation is an effort to prevent or minimize the potential impact of a disaster event. Disaster mitigation education, especially in fire disasters, needs to be instilled from an early age. In addition, childhood is a golden period, so the orphanage is the main target of fire prevention and control programs. This activity aims to provide disaster mitigation education to orphanage children because high-rise building fires in Indonesia are a fairly frequent problem and must be taken seriously. Community service activities are carried out in the form of counseling regarding fire disaster mitigation at the Tanjung Barat Orphanage. The community service method carried out was given a pretest to 14 children consisting of boys and girls to measure their knowledge of Fire Disaster Management, followed by the delivery of materials, and games, and after that a posttest to determine the understanding of the 14 children towards the material provided. The results of the pretest showed an average target knowledge of 73.6 and the post-test results increased by an average of 86.4. Thus, it was concluded that the knowledge of the children at the Tanjung Barat Orphanage increased after being given the material on Fire Disaster Management. With this increase in knowledge, it is hoped that the children at the Tanjung Barat Orphanage can carry out Fire Disaster Management according to the correct procedures without any sense of fear.
 
 Keywords: Children, Counseling, Disaster Mitigation, Fire, Orphanage

Immersive Virtual Reality Serious Games With DL-Assisted Learning in High-Rise Fire Evacuation on Fire Safety Training and Research.

In case of fires in high-rise buildings, appropriate safe behaviors for leaving the high floors are the key to reducing injuries and increasing the chance of survival. Traditional training methods are often used to provide knowledge about a fire escape but may become ineffective in terms of knowledge acquisition and internalization. Serious games are an innovative teaching method, aiming at training and educating people in game environments. In recent years, immersive virtual reality has become popular in many educational environments. Various educational training programs are combined with serious games and attract more and more attention because they can make users feel highly involved and promote learning cognition. Therefore, this study proposed the fire safety training of high-rise building fire escape based on virtual reality and invited 140 college students to make explorations through this virtual situation. In addition, deep learning was integrated into the recommended safety training system, so that students could be trained in areas where concepts were ill-defined. According to the results, through the high-rise building fire escape training based on virtual reality, students’ fire safety skills were significantly improved and most students could use their behavioral skills in real situations, which has positive effects on promoting the development of fire escape knowledge. Finally, according to the analysis on the results of the DL-assisted learning system, some suggestions were made in this study on behavioral skills training for professional firefighters and researchers.

Modelling fire smoke dynamics in a stairwell of high-rise building: Effect of ambient pressure

In a high-rise building fire, vertical shafts are the main paths for hot smoke to spread to multiple floors, posing a significant fire hazard. In this work, the large eddy simulation (LES) was applied to simulate smoke dynamics in a full-scale stairwell and study the influence of ambient pressure and heat release rate (HRR). The results have shown that the air mass flow rate into the stairwell decreases as ambient pressure drops on account of the lower air velocity and density and increases with HRR because of the stronger stack effect and increased smoke production. An equation incorporating ambient pressure and HRR is proposed for predicting the air mass flow rate. The temperature of hot smoke near the fire source increases with the reduced ambient pressure, while on the floors away from the fire source, the temperature decreases due to the higher temperature attenuation at a lower pressure. In addition, an empirical model is put forward for predicting the rising time of the smoke plume considering ambient pressure. The results could increase the basic understanding of smoke movement mechanisms and contribute to engineering applications of smoke control in high-rise building fires under reduced ambient pressure conditions.

Optimization Simulation of Ultrafine Dry Powder Blow-Assisted Pipe Based on CFD

With the increase of fire in high-rise buildings in recent years, the demand for high-performance Water Tower Fire Truck (WTFT) is increasing day by day. In order to improve the injection capacity of ultrafine dry powder of the WTFT, this article adopts the way of adding blow-assisted pipe to realize nitrogen-assisted blowing, and the internal flow field of existing blow-assisted pipe was analyzed and optimized by CFD simulation. The influence law of size parameters on the mass flow rate and velocity of ultrafine dry powder and nitrogen was analyzed and summarized under different inlet pressure conditions. The optimization result is that the diameter of the nitrogen-assisted blowing pipe is increased between 10 mm and 20 mm, the diameter of the outlet pipe is 32 mm, and the diameter of the inlet of the mixing pipe is 90 mm.

Extinguishing Real Fires by Fully Autonomous Multirotor UAVs in the MBZIRC 2020 Competition

In this paper, we describe a system for combating real fires with sprayed liquid extinguishing agent using a team of multirotor UAVs. The system design relies on onboard sensors and operates without the need for human intervention throughout its complex mission, from its takeoff to landing. The core UAV platform can estimate its state, self-localize, navigate and locate and extinguishing fires. Thermal and RGB cameras are used, each with a specialized computer vision subsystem and are combined with planar LIDAR for 3D localization of fires on multistory building facades. The system conducts aerial firefighting with a software stack that addresses flight dynamics and sensor limitations and a liquid-spraying subsystem incorporating a rigidly-attached water nozzle. The approach presented in this paper was motivated by the Mohamed Bin Zayed International Robotics Challenge (MBZIRC 2020) firefighting scenario, which focused on coordinated multi-UAV teams that can autonomously combat high-rise building fires. The MBZIRC series places particular emphasis on fast and reliable deployment of robots in realistic conditions. These contests promote development of real-world applications that are greatly needed by society, but which still exceed State-of-the-Art in the robotics community. To our knowledge, our system was the only MBZIRC 2020 contender to extinguish a facade fire successfully in autonomous mode without using an RTK-GNSS system. Our approach contributed to victory in the overall competition and we have now adapted it into an industrial prototype for a firefighting UAV. A video attachment to this paper is available at http://mrs.felk.cvut.cz/fr2020firechallenge-facadefires.

Research on the fire safety assessment of high building with intuitionistic fuzzy TOPSIS method

In our country, fire from high-rise buildings happens from time to time and produced economic loss could be well over 100 billion that will give rise to great harm to safety of the people’s life and property even to the development of the whole national economy. In the fire protection work for High-rise building’s safety assessment, prevention, cause and salvation, all of this controlled by multiple factors. With their different attributes, fire problem and management work became more complex and even harder. When we want to integration and judgment the information which including many main bodies that with multi-aspect and evaluation index characteristics to be evaluated, Fuzzy mathematics evaluation method can help us. It can consider fully the fuzzy and uncertain in the assessment. For the problems in high-rise Building fire protection management. And it is frequently viewed as a multi-attribute group decision-making (MAGDM) issue. Thus, a novel MAGDM method is needed to tackle it. Depending on the conventional TOPSIS (Technique for Order Preferenceby Similarity to Ideal Solution) method and intuitionistic fuzzy sets (IFSs), this essay designs a novel intuitive distance based IF-TOPSIS method for fire safety assessment based on the high building. Afterwards, relying on novel distance measures between IFNs, the conventional TOPSIS method is extended to the intuitionistic fuzzy environment to calculate assessment score of each alternative. Eventually, an application about fire safety assessment based on the high building and some comparative analysis have been given to demonstrate the superiority of the designed method. The results illustrate that the designed framework is useful for fire safety assessment based on the high building.

Analysis on Design and Installation of Automatic Fire Alarm System in Civil High-rise Building Fire Protection System

Analysis on Design and Installation of Automatic Fire Alarm System in Civil High-rise Building Fire Protection System

Study on quantification scheme of weight coefficient for electrical fire risk assessment of high-rise building

Electrical fire is a very important fire type in high-rise building fire. Therefore, it has high research value for risk assessment of electric fire in high-rise buildings. However, it is difficult to accurately obtain the weight index coefficient of electrical fire risk assessment by single qualitative or quantitative risk assessment method, so the reliability and objectivity of electrical fire risk assessment cannot be guarantee. In order to solve this problem, a method of using numerical simulation to obtain different types of fire risk data is proposed. Then, taking fire risk influencing factors as the research object, a comprehensive fire risk evaluation system is established. Through the comprehensive evaluation system, the electrical fire risk data are evaluated to determine the electrical fire risk weight coefficient. The results show that the fire risk quantification scheme of weight coefficient proposed in this paper can eliminate the subjectivity of traditional expert ratings. The proposed evaluation standard is a comprehensive evaluation system based on the numerical simulation and analytic hierarchy process. Above mentioned method can improve the reliability and accuracy of the weight coefficient of electrical fire risk assessment, and provide a theoretical basis for the research and classification of fire risk.

Retracted] Control System of Fire Rescue Robot for High‐Rise Building Design

In recent years, with the steady and rapid growth of the national economy, various industries have developed rapidly and the resulting fire accidents have also been on the rise. This study mainly discusses the control system of a fire rescue robot for a high‐rise building design. Robot fire detection method involves obtaining the video image of the fire detection area through a high‐definition camera, performing image preprocessing on the current frame image of the video in the robot operating system to obtain the image; and performing the flame area segmentation based on the Ohta color space and the Otsu threshold segmentation algorithm on the image, to obtain the segmented image; through the interframe difference method, the preprocessed image of the previous frame is subtracted from the current frame image and the moving area of the image is segmented to obtain the segmented image; the obtained segmented image is combined with the segmented image in the robot operating system and images are intersected to obtain a segmented image with the characteristics of flame motion; based on other characteristics of the flame, flame recognition is performed on the area in the segmented image. Fires in high‐rise buildings are increasing gradually, which seriously endangers the safety of human life and property. The firefighting robot and its control system play an important role in the fire protection of high‐rise buildings. The purpose of this study is to analyze the disaster relief effect of a firefighting robot and control system in high‐rise buildings. In this study, we use MATLAB software to model and simulate the rescue situation of a firefighting robot in high‐rise buildings. The fuzzy control system established in the fuzzy logic toolbox of MATLAB can easily replace human field work and can change the control rules and membership function in the FIS editor. The results show that the rise time and adjustment time of the system are basically the same under the condition of variable load stiffness. The maximum overshoot is 0.59%, and the steady‐state error is 0.19%. The maximum overshoot is 1.0148%, and the stability error is 0.46%. It is concluded that the expert PID algorithm is efficient and practical. It can be concluded that the robot position control system adopts PID control algorithm, and the attitude control system adopts expert PID control algorithm. This research provides some value for the development and design of firefighting robots in high‐rise buildings in the future and also brings important significance.

Influence of open and closed windows on the vertical spread characteristics of fire

In order to systematically explain the spreading mechanism of vertical fire, Pyrosim software with fire dynamic modules is used to simulate the fire spreading characteristics in a five-storey residential apartment building. The vertical spread characteristics of fire, high-temperature smoke, and leap-frog behavior are analyzed by evaluating the distribution of pressure, temperature, and gas flow velocity in the studied numerical fire field. In addition, considering the possible cases of high-rise building fire in reality, the fire spreading characteristics of three different opening sequences of glass windows are given: (i) only the windows on the first floor are open; (ii) the windows are randomly opened by the high temperature of the glass; (iii) all glass windows from the first to the fifth floors are open. The simulation results show that an appropriate increase of turbulent flow in the low-level area can greatly reduce the fire temperature in the high-level area, which can provide a certain reference for the safety and design of building fire protection in the future.

A comprehensive review on fire damage assessment of reinforced concrete structures

The provision of appropriate fire-safety measures is a basic need in building design to guarantee the safety of its occupants. Damage due to fire is one of the most destructive aspects that cause deterioration of reinforced concrete structures. Although concrete is a noncombustible material, its physical, chemical, and mechanical characteristics degrade if exposed to a high temperature. The seriousness of a fire in concrete structures is mostly determined by the magnitude and duration of the fire. If the magnitude of fire is minor and for a limited time then the damage to the concrete members is likely to be minimal. Similarly, a higher magnitude or high temperature with a longer duration will cause maximum damage or may result in the collapse of concrete structures. The purpose of this review is to summarize the damage of reinforced concrete (RC) structures after a severe occurrence of fire. Additionally, to discuss the firefighting deficiencies, and remedial measures adopted for recovering the damage due to fire in high-rise buildings. The current study is a review of previous studies from the last decade on important fire damage assessment measures used for damage assessment of RC structures. Some case studies have also been reported in this work. The review results show the popularity of surveys and case studies on fire damage related to RC structures. The essential contributing factors are collected that correspond to the damage of RC structures due to fire. The electrical problems, faulty fire detection systems, and a lack of firefighting equipment, and obstacles in emergency exits were shown to be the most frequent causes of fire damage.