High Pressure Part Research Articles

Combustion model reduction for diesel engine control design

The subject of this work is the derivation of a simulation model for premixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) combustion that can be used in closed-loop control development. For the high-pressure part of the engine cycle, a detailed three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics model is reduced to a stand-alone multi-zone chemistry model. This multi-zone chemistry model is extended by a mean value model accounting for the gas exchange losses. The resulting model is capable of describing PCCI combustion with stationary exactness, and is at the same time very economic with respect to computational costs. The model is further extended by the identified system dynamics that influence the stationary inputs. For this purporse, a Wiener model is set up that uses the stationary model as a non-linear system representation. In this way, a dynamic non-linear model for the representation of the controlled plant diesel engine is created.

Thermal analysis of cooled supercritical steam turbine components

This paper describes thermal analysis methodology results for the supercritical steam turbines. The analysis presented here concerns the external cooling of the turbine components. Due to the supercritical parameters of the live steam, the inlet areas of the high and intermediate pressure parts are exposed to the steam at high temperature level. The design solutions applied to the turbines so far aim to protect the inlet areas. Basic solution incorporate protective screens, which are made of a material more resistant to the high temperature than the rest of the components. Additional protection is provided by the external cooling. The applications of both methods described above allow to increase the live steam temperature. The conducted analysis determined the temperature field in the steam, which cools the rotor, as well as the distribution of the temperature and stresses in the rotor. The obtained results were then applied to the investigations concerning the durability of the rotor.

Plastic crystal phases of simple water models

We report the appearance of two plastic crystal phases of water at high pressure and temperature using computer simulations. In one of them the oxygen atoms form a body centered cubic structure (bcc) and in the other they form a face centered cubic structure (fcc). In both cases the water molecules were able to rotate almost freely. We have found that the bcc plastic crystal transformed into a fcc plastic crystal via a Martensitic phase transition when heated at constant pressure. We have performed the characterization and localization in the phase diagram of these plastic crystal phases for the SPC/E, TIP4P, and TIP4P/2005 water potential models. For TIP4P/2005 model free energy calculations were carried out for the bcc plastic crystal and fcc plastic crystal using a new method (which is a slight variation of the Einstein crystal method) proposed for these types of solid. The initial coexistence points for the SPC/E and TIP4P models were obtained using Hamiltonian Gibbs-Duhem integration. For all of these models these two plastic crystal phases appear in the high pressure and temperature region of the phase diagram. It would be of interest to study if such plastic crystal phases do indeed exist for real water. This would shed some light on the question of whether these models can describe satisfactorily the high pressure part of the phase diagram of water, and if not, where and why they fail.

Time-Accurate Predictions for a Fully Cooled High-Pressure Turbine Stage—Part I: Comparison of Predictions With Data

The aerodynamics of a fully cooled axial single stage high-pressure turbine operating at design corrected conditions of corrected speed, flow function, and stage pressure ratio has been investigated. This paper focuses on flow field predictions obtained from the viewpoint of a turbine designer using the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) codes Numeca’s FINE/TURBO and the code TURBO. The predictions were all performed with only knowledge of the stage operating conditions, but without knowledge of the surface pressure measurements. Predictions were obtained with and without distributed cooling flow simulation. The FINE/TURBO model was run in 3-D viscous steady and time-accurate modes; the TURBO model was used to provide only 3-D viscous time-accurate results. Both FINE/TURBO and TURBO utilized phase-lagged boundary conditions to simplify the time-accurate model and to significantly reduce the computing time and resources. The time-accurate surface pressure loadings and steady state predictions are compared to measurements for the blade, vane, and shroud as time-averaged, time series, and power spectrum data. The measurements were obtained using The Ohio State University Gas Turbine Laboratory Turbine Test Facility. The time-average and steady comparisons of measurements and predictions are presented for 50% span on the vane and blade. Comparisons are also presented for several locations along the blade to illustrate local differences in the CFD behavior. The comparisons for the shroud are made across the blade passage at axial blade chord locations corresponding to the pressure transducer locations. The power spectrum decompositions of individual transducers (based on the fast Fourier transform (FFT)) are also included to lend insight into the unsteady nature of the flow. The comparisons show that both computational tools are capable of providing reasonable aerodynamic predictions for the vane, blade, and stationary shroud. The CFD model predictions show the encouraging trend of improved matching to the experimental data with increasing model fidelity from mass averaged to distributed cooling flow inclusion and as the codes change from steady to time-accurate modes.

Effect of microstructure on fatigue crack propagation behavior in a steam turbine rotor steel

Fatigue crack growth behavior was investigated in a newly developed steel 25Cr2NiMo1V with different heat treatments to meet different property requirements of high-pressure (HP) and low-pressure (LP) parts in the combined steam turbine rotor. The load-shedding method and constant load amplitude techniques were adopted. Fractography including crack surface observation and fatigue crack growth path analyses was carried out. Results show that in the threshold regime, fatigue crack growth resistance of HP is clearly superior to that of LP. The distributed bainitic microstructures and larger prior austenite grain size in HP result in more tortuous crack propagation path than that in LP. Compared with ferritic blocks in HP, the tempered martensitic laths in LP do not play a dominant role in stopping the fatigue crack advance. Nevertheless, no clear difference in fatigue crack growth in HP and LP is observed in the Paris regime.

Introduction of a Dedicated Circulation Phantom for Comprehensive In Vitro Analysis of Intravascular Contrast Material Application

To develop a circulation phantom with physiologic circulation parameters, including a pulmonary and a body circulation for the evaluation of intravascular contrast material (CM) application. The circulation phantom consists of a low-pressure venous system into which CM is injected, a pulmonary circulation, and high-pressure body circulation with an anthropometric aorta and coronary arteries. The phantom is driven by a pulsatile Harvard heart pump. Venous and arterial pressure were set to physiologic values with heart rate (60 beats/min), stroke volume (60 mL), and ratio of diastole to systole (60/40) also were within physiologic limits. CM with different iodine concentrations (300, 370, and 400 mg iodine/mL) were injected at a flow rate of 4 mL/s (iodine delivery rate: 1.2 g, 1.48 g, and 1.6 g iodine/s, respectively; total iodine load for all protocols: 36 g). Serial computed tomography scans at the level of the pulmonary artery, the ascending and the descending aorta replica were obtained. Dynamic pressure in the phantom and true injection system parameters (flow rate, injection pressure, and CM volume) was continuously monitored. Time-enhancement curves were calculated, and pulmonary and aortic peak time and enhancement were determined. Results were compared using nonparametric unpaired Wilcoxon tests. The pressure in the phantom showed physiologic values for the low (mean pressure: 15 mm Hg) and high pressure part (125/75 mm Hg). Programmed injection values (flow rate, pressure, and volume) were reached for all injections. Using CM with 400 mg iodine/mL, the shortest pulmonary and aortic peak times and the highest pulmonary and aortic peak enhancement values were obtained compared with CM with 300 and 370 mg iodine/mL. We developed a flow phantom with physiologic circulation parameters for measurement of contrast enhancement. The phantom is suitable for further evaluation of CM injection protocols for pulmonary and aortic enhancement.

An advanced seismic analysis of an NPP powerful turbogenerator on an isolation pedestal

This paper presents a detailed seismic analysis of a powerful high-speed Russian turbine within a Nuclear Power Plant. Although dozens of these turbines have worked reliably since the 1970s worldwide, until the last decade, only simplified structural analyses were available due to the turbines’ complicated overall structure and internal design. The current analysis considers the detailed geometry of the turbine itself and the vibration and seismic isolation system within the turbine's pedestal and the full range of operational, accident and seismic loads like high pressure, outside loads induced by pipelines and so on. To solve the problem of the turbine seismic qualification, the following steps have been taken. The first step was to create detailed finite element models of the turbine's high and low pressure parts and rotor system with bearings. Using such models, corresponding simplified models were developed to be included into the coupled model of the system: “Building–Vibroisolation Pedestal–Turbine” (BVT). The second step was the analysis of that coupled system. Soil–structure interaction was considered using actual soil conditions. Three components of time history acceleration were used to define seismic excitation. As the result of BVT system analysis, a full picture of time history displacements and loads was determined. At the same time, a problem of rotor gaps was solved. In the final step, determined loads were applied to the detailed models of the turbine's parts for seismic qualification of the whole structure.

Thermodynamics and Phase Stability in the Ga–N System

The decomposition of GaN powder was studied experimentally using two different customized thermogravimetric methods, dynamic oscillation TGA, and isothermal stepping TGA for a higher resolution of the decomposition start. A reproducible mass gain at slightly lower temperature suggests the equilibrium temperature to be at 1110±10 K under 1 bar of nitrogen. A CALPHAD type thermodynamic analysis of all available phase equilibrium and thermodynamic data is performed. This includes the determination of the absolute entropy of GaN, 30±4 J/mol K, based on a Debye- and Einstein-analysis of the experimental data on the heat capacity. An explicit equation for the fugacity–pressure relation of nitrogen, f( P), is developed, which is useful for the conversion of complex phase diagram calculation output. This is crucial because f can be several orders of magnitude higher than P for the high pressures encountered during GaN decomposition. Based on the consistent thermodynamic description, developed for the Ga–N system, all thermodynamic data and various phase diagrams are calculated. They indicate a good overall agreement between the different types of experimental data (calorimetric, vapor pressure, phase equilibrium). The high pressure part of the decomposition pressure of GaN is actually predicted from the thermodynamic model in good agreement with the experimental data.

CTGF expression during mouse embryonic development.

Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) is a potent fibroblast mitogen and angiogenic factor which plays an important role in wound healing, cancerogenesis and fibrotic and vascular disease. Here we explored the regulation and the cellular site of the mRNA synthesis for this growth factor in the developing mouse embryo by in situ hybridisation. Strong and persistent CTGF gene expression was limited to three types of tissue: the vascular endothelium, particularly the high-pressure part of the cardiovascular system, condensed connective tissue around bone and cartilage, and maturing layer VII neurons in the cerebral cortex. With few exceptions (late tooth bud, neuroepithelium) epithelial tissue was negative. Very transient but strong expression was observed early during formation of cartilage, in late stages during perichondral ossification, on cerebral neuroepithelium, and in several discrete stages of tooth formation, on mesenchymal precursors of odontoblasts condensing on inner dental epithelium, and later on apposing regions of ameloblast and odontoblast epithelium. Altogether, the current study suggests that CTGF performs a dual role: a continuous function in the cardiovascular system, bone and cartilage-associated mesenchyme and maturing layer VII neurons, but also a more transient function associated with the formation of cartilage, bone, tooth and cerebral nerve cells.

A novel hybrid absorption–compression refrigeration cycle

When used in traditional pool-boiling type refrigeration cycles, non-azeotropic mixed refrigerants tend to result in a reduced efficiency compared to pure refrigerants. This results from the composition shift effect, which distributes the mixture components: concentrating the more volatile component in the high pressure part of the cycle, and the less volatile component in the low pressure part. The obvious effect of this is to increase the compression ratio relative to a single component. This article investigates a way of manipulating the composition change of a refrigerant mixture, using two components of similar volatility, in order to reduce the compression ratio. Counter-current vapour–liquid contact is used in a “refrigeration column”, which is combined with a distillation column. The cycle is able to exploit heat sources below 100°C as input to the distillation column and the designer is able to optimise the consumption of compressor power and distillation heat input.

Analysis of thermal stress evolution in the steam drum during start-up of a heat recovery steam generator

A program to predict the transient characteristics of the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is constructed and the start-up behavior of the high-pressure part of an HRSG is analyzed with a special focus on the estimation of the thermal stress in the steam drum. Three HRSG start-up procedures (steady gas turbine without gas bypass, steady gas turbine with gas bypass, start-up gas turbine) are simulated. The gas bypass is conducted during the initial stage of the start-up. Estimation of the maximum thermal stress makes it possible to optimize the gas bypass mode. It is shown that bypassing part of the gas flow lowers the peak stress much in case of the steady gas turbine exhaust condition. Examples of the scheduling of the gas flow increase using the step and ramp modes are demonstrated. In case of the simultaneous start-up, the peak stress is considerably low due to the gradual increase of gas temperature and mass flow and bypassing just a small portion of gas flow is enough to keep it under the allowable limit.

Is it useful to measure supratentorial ICP in the presence of a posterior fossa lesion? Absence of transtentorial pressure gradients in an animal model

Previous studies with animal models of supratentorial ICP elevation have demonstrated a pressure gradient between the supratentorial and the infratentorial compartments. The present study was designed to investigate the possible presence of such a gradient in the case of infratentorial ICP elevation. An inflatable infratentorial balloon catheter was implanted in seven domestic pigs. The infratentorial ICP (ICPi) was measured in the left cerebellar hemisphere, and the supratentorial ICP (ICPs) was measured in the left cerebral hemisphere. The corresponding pulse amplitudes (ICPi-PA, ICPs-PA) were recorded in both compartments, and the cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) was calculated. ICPi and ICPs values prior to balloon inflation were 4.4 (SD 2.2) and 4.1 (SD 2.3) mm Hg, respectively, and increased to 63.1 (SD 32.6) and 62.3 (SD 28.1) mmHg after balloon inflation. ICPi-PA rose from 3.1 (SD 0.43) to 12.8 (SD 8.0) mmHg, and ICPs-PA rose from 3.2 (SD 0.63) to 13.0 (SD 7.1) mmHg. CPP decreased from 86.1 (SD 12.0) to 55.4 (SD 14.6) mm Hg. The paired difference between ICPi and ICPs values was 0.44 (SD 1.96) mmHg, and the paired difference of ICP amplitudes was 0.03 (SD 1.19) mmHg. All these differences in infratentorial and supratentorial values were statistically not significant. In conclusion, infratentorial ICP elevation in the presented pig model leads to a uniform ICP elevation in the intracranial space without development of a considerable pressure gradient below and above the tentorium. In the low pressure part of the ICP curve, cerebrospinal fluid connects the compartments and contributes to the pressure equilibrium. The early obstruction of the foramen magnum by intruding cerebellar tissue seems to isolate the infratentorial from the spinal compartment. In the high-pressure part of the curve, the upwards cerebellar transtentorial herniation takes over the pressure transfer, and the whole intracranial space can be considered as a single compartment in the pig.

On the occurrence of dynamic strain aging in near-alpha alloy Ti-5.8Al-4Sn-3.5Zr-0.7Nb-0.5Mo-0.35Si

Alloy Ti-5.8Al-4Sn-3.5Zr-0.7Nb-0.5Mo-0.35Si (IMI 834) is the most recently developed near-alpha type titanium alloy for high-temperature application up to 873 K, as discs and blades in the high pressure part of compressors, in advanced jet engines. It possesses a good combination of creep and fatigue resistance at elevated temperature, in properly heat-treated condition, and has a fine bimodal microstructure, consisting of a small volume fraction of equiaxed alpha in a fine-grained matrix of transformed beta. Some investigations have already been done on the tensile behavior of this alloy, in different heat-treated conditions, over a wide range of temperature from 293 to 923 K. However, no report has been made on the occurrence of dynamic strain aging (DSA) in this alloy. The purpose of this article is to present the observation on the occurrence of DSA in the titanium alloy IMI 834, in the as-received (hot-rolled and mill-annealed) condition, over the temperature range 623 to 823 K.

Three-dimensional simulation of HPCVD-linking continuum transport and reaction kinetics with topography simulation

For wafer sizes in state of-the-art semiconductor manufacturing ranging up to 300 mm, the uniformity of processes across the wafer becomes a very important issue. We present a fully three-dimensional model for the feature scale simulation of continuum transport and reaction determined high-pressure chemical vapor deposition processes suitable for the investigation of such nonuniformities. The newly developed three-dimensional approach combines topography simulation, meshing, and finite element method tools, and allows simulations over arbitrary geometries such as structures resulting from nonuniform underlying physical vapor deposition films. This enables the examination of film profile variations across the wafer for multistep processes consisting of low- and high-pressure parts such as Ti/TiN/W plug-fills, Additionally, the model allows a very flexible formulation of the involved gas chemistry and surface reactions and can easily be extended to process chemistries including gas phase reactions of precursors as observed in deposition of silicon dioxide from tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS). We show simulation examples for a tungsten deposition process, which is applied as last step in a Ti/TiN/W plug-fill. For filling of an L-shaped trench, we show the transition from transport to reaction limited process conditions.

Is it useful to measure supratentorial ICP in the presence of a posterior fossa lesion? Absence of transtentorial pressure gradients in an animal model

Previous studies with animal models of supratentorial ICP elevation have demonstrated a pressure gradient between the supratentorial and the infratentorial compartments. The present study was designed to investigate the possible presence of such a gradient in the case of infratentorial ICP elevation. An inflatable infratentorial balloon catheter was implanted in seven domestic pigs. The infratentorial ICP (ICPi) was measured in the left cerebellar hemisphere, and the supratentorial ICP (ICPs) was measured in the left cerebral hemisphere. The corresponding pulse amplitudes (ICPi-PA, ICPs-PA) were recorded in both compartments, and the cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) was calculated. ICPi and ICPs values prior to balloon inflation were 4.4 (SD 2.2) and 4.1 (SD 2.3) mm Hg, respectively, and increased to 63.1 (SD 32.6) and 62.3 (SD 28.1) mmHg after balloon inflation. ICPi-PA rose from 3.1 (SD 0.43) to 12.8 (SD 8.0) mmHg, and ICPs-PA rose from 3.2 (SD 0.63) to 13.0 (SD 7.1) mmHg. CPP decreased from 86.1 (SD 12.0) to 55.4 (SD 14.6) mm Hg.The paired difference between ICPi and ICPs values was 0.44 (SD 1.96) mmHg, and the paired difference of ICP amplitudes was 0.03 (SD 1.19) mmHg. All these differences in infratentorial and supratentorial values were statistically not significant. In conclusion, infratentorial ICP elevation in the presented pig model leads to a uniform ICP elevation in the intracranial space without development of a considerable pressure gradient below and above the tentorium. In the low pressure part of the ICP curve, cerebrospinal fluid connects the compartments and contributes to the pressure equilibrium. The early obstruction of the foramen magnum by intruding cerebellar tissue seems to isolate the infratentorial from the spinal compartment. In the high-pressure part of the curve, the upwards cerebellar transtentorial herniation takes over the pressure transfer, and the whole intracranial space can be considered as a single compartment in the pig.

On the coupling of the elastohydrodynamic problem

The paper presents the results of an investigation of methods of mathematically coupling the equations of elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL) that define the EHL line contact problem. The objective is to develop numerical solvers for use in the study of thin-film/rough surface contacts such as found in gears. It has been found that deformation behaviour of the surfaces is a dominant effect and that full rather than partial coupling is necessary for stable solutions. For cases considered using a Newtonian lubricant a first-order formulation of the Reynolds equation is required at high loads in the high-pressure part of the contact. The fully coupled method is also applied to contact between a moving smooth surface and a stationary rough surface. The significant changes brought about by non-Newtonian oil behaviour are demonstrated, together with the ability of the method to provide solutions for cases where the λ ratio (of film thickness to surface roughness) is as low as 0.1.

Recombination of radicals in the high-pressure and high-temperature limit Part 2Reaction CH3+H

The reaction CH3+H is examined theoretically at high pressures and temperatures (T>200 K) on the basis of adiabatic curves that describe weak, long-range interactions between reactants. These curves are obtained by using available abinitio results and by solving the pertinent Schrodinger equation. A mechanism of radical recombination involves the formation of weakly bound CH3···H intermediates which can be formed provided that the orbital momentum of the system does not exceed a threshold value of 〈llim〉=13±1. The rate constant for recombination exhibits a very weak negative temperature dependence and is underestimated compared with experiment. The contribution of direct recombination involving a strongly bound complex depends on temperature. At higher temperatures it may exceed 50%.

Recombination of radicals in the high-pressure and high-temperature limit Part 1Reaction CH3+CH3

The reaction CH3 + CH3 –(k)→ C2H6 is used in a theoretical study of radical recombination in the gas phase. Long-range attractive forces are studied with the use of adiabatic curves that describe weak reactant interactions. Provided that the kinetic rotational energy is sufficiently large, so that the orbital momentum remains smaller than the boundary value llim, the radicals form loosely bound states CH3···CH3. Such loose states are of crucial importance in the postulated reaction mechanism. At higher pressures and temperatures (T > 200 K) the maximum asymptotical rate constant for the recombination of methyl radicals is given by the expression krec(T) = Lge√[h/(RT)](ℏ/μ)3/2〈llim〉2where L = 1/2 is the ratio of the symmetry coefficients for the reagents and transition state, ge = 1/4, µ is the reduced mass and 〈lmin〉 is the threshold value for the orbital quantum number l, averaged over all the states. For two methyl radicals 〈llim〉 = 39 ± 2. This simple analytical formula reproduces experimental results very well. The contribution of direct recombination involving a strongly bound complex is smaller by about an order of magnitude than that involving loosely bound CH3···CH3 complexes exclusively.

Preparation of Liposomes Encapsulating Water-Soluble Compounds Using Supercritical Carbon Dioxide

In this paper the development of a new preparation method of liposomes containing a water soluble marker (fluorescein isothiocyanate–dextran (FITC–dextran) or zinc phthalocyanine tetrasulfonic acid (TSZnPc) using supercritical carbon dioxide (called "the supercritical liposome method") is described. The apparatus used consisted of two main parts: the high-pressure part, in which the lipid components 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoylphosphatidylcholine (POPC) and cholesterol (Chol) (7:3 molar ratio) were dissolved under pressure in supercritical carbon dioxide, and a low-pressure part, in which the homogeneous supercritical solution is expanded and simultaneously mixed with the aqueous phase to yield liposomes encapsulating the water soluble marker. Addition of 7% absolute ethanol to carbon dioxide at 25MPa and 60°C and the use of a high-pressure recycling system during 30min form the homogeneous solution with high reproducibility of both lipid components and resulted in an equal expansion profile (recovery after expansion versus time) of POPC and Chol. Incubation of the lipid components during 60min at the above mentioned conditions generated only 3% degradation. The average size of the liposomes was about 200nm and could not be influenced by the experimental conditions used. Optimal values for encapsulated volume (1.25L/mol) and efficiency (20%) of the liposomes were obtained using statistical experimental design by using the water soluble marker TSZnPc and an encapsulation capillary with 5.0cm length and 0.5mm inner diameter. The total amount of ethanol used to obtain an encapsulation efficiency of 20% was 15-fold reduced compared to the ethanol injection method of Batzri and Korn (Biochim. Biophys. Acta1973, 298, 1015–1019).

The effect of high external pressure on DPPC-cholesterol multilamellar vesicles: a pressure-tuning Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy study

We have investigated the effect of incorporation of cholesterol on the barotropic phase behavior of aqueous dispersions of 1,2-dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) in combination with the diamond anvil technique. Infrared spectral parameters, such as the frequencies, intensities, bandshapes and band splittings have been used to detect structural and dynamical changes upon incorporation of cholesterol into the DPPC bilayer. Analysis of these spectral parameters yields information on conformer population, reorientational fluctuations, interchain interaction, hydrogen bonding, interdigitation packing, and phase transformations of the DPPC/cholesterol mixtures. We present FTIR data of aqueous DPPC dispersions at 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mol% cholesterol in the pressure range from 0.001 to 20 kbar at two temperatures, 25°C and 55°C. In addition, comprehensive temperature dependent measurements in the range from 20°C to 80°C were performed at ambient pressure. Analysis of the CH 2 symmetric and antisymmetric stretching modes yields information of the effect of cholesterol concentration on the phase transition phenomena occurring in the lipid bilayer. Observation of the correlation field splittings of the CH 2 bending and rocking modes monitors structural changes and dynamical properties of the lipid mixtures. Cholesterol induces more orientational disorder of the lipid molecules in terms of an increase of the reorientational fluctuations of the molecules and twisting/torsion motions of the acyl chains in the gel phase even at elevated pressures. It therefore appears that one important role of cholesterol is to make the membrane insensitive to changes in external environment, such as high hydrostatic pressure. Increase of pressure leads to a decrease in half width of the C O band contour of pure DPPC and of DPPC/cholesterol mixtures, especially for cholesterol concentrations equal and higher than 30 mol%, which might be due to a marked increase in free carbonyl groups. At high pressure part of the bound water from the interfacial zone of the membrane is withdrawn. Increase of cholesterol concentration and increase in pressure have opposite effects on the population of free and hydrated carbonyl ester groups of DPPC in the gel phases.