High Neophobia Research Articles

Cross-cultural comparison of the acceptance of insects as food among young adults in Malaysia and Japan

Abstract The growing world population raises concerns about food security, with increasing demand for animal protein often impacting scarce resources like land, water and energy. Edible insects have been proposed as an alternative protein source to address this issue. The study aimed to compare acceptance of insects as food and its association with food neophobia among young adults in Malaysia and Japan. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 1954 subjects, comprising 1,071 Malaysians and 883 Japanese young adults. Subjects completed an online questionnaire on sociodemography, Food Neophobia Scale, and acceptance of insects as food. Chi-square, Wilcoxon signed rank post-hoc and Mann-Whitney U tests were used for statistical analysis. Only 9.2% were willing to eat insects as food and 6.5% were ready to adopt eating insects in daily life. A higher proportion of Malaysians (10.5%) was willing to accept insects as food than Japanese (7.6%, ). However, Japanese (9.5%) were more ready to adopt eating insects in daily life than Malaysians (3.9%, ). Most subjects in both countries were in the neutral category of food neophobia, with no significant difference between countries. In Malaysia, the main reason for willingness to eat insects was food safety (11.5%), while in Japan it was caloric and nutritional value (17.8%). The main reason for unwillingness to eat insects in both countries was appearance (Malaysia: 17.1%; Japan: 27.9%). There was a significant association () between the acceptance of insects as food and the category of food neophobia, with lower acceptance associated with higher neophobia or vice versa. In conclusion, the acceptance of insects as food is low among young adults in Malaysia and Japan. A strategic marketing approach tailored to the reasons for acceptance could effectively promote entomophagy in both countries. Further studies should focus on transforming insects into more palatable forms.

Development and validation of a cultured meat neophobia scale: Industry implications for South Africa

Interest in evaluating cultured meat neophobia is growing as the development of this product continues to progress. As the available evaluation tools have imprecise wording and fall short of providing critical information, this study endeavoured to develop a neophobia scale that captured product-specific nuances of cultured meat. The developed scale was tested using data collected in South Africa. Factor and correlation analyses were conducted to determine the dominant consumer concerns and the groups in society that would face the greatest psychological hinderances to adopting of cultured meat. The study's findings show generally low neophobia in the South African market. Negative sentiment was dominated by meat quality concerns while health, food safety, social and cultural concerns, which normally form stronger objections to food acceptance, were low. The study predicts that market penetration would be hardest among older consumers, due to their relatively higher neophobia. However, if marketing efforts are targeted at addressing consumers’ social concerns, marginal increases in acceptance may be experienced among meat-eaters, people reducing their meat consumption, household heads and consumers from high-income provinces. The study concludes that collaboration between the public and private sectors in the provision of legislation guiding food safety and the setting of quality standards will be key to addressing consumer concerns in the evolving protein supply market.

Mirror stimulation in Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius).

Mirror exposure elicits a wide range of behavioral responses, some of which have been considered as part of possible evidence of mirror self-recognition (MSR). These responses can range from social behaviors, indicating that an animal considers its own reflection as a conspecific, to mirror-guided and self-directed actions. Evidence of MSR has been found categorically in only a few species, such as in magpies, chimpanzees, horses, and elephants. Evidence in corvids is currently debated due to inconsistent findings. In this study, we investigated the reaction of Eurasian jays when presenting them with three mirror-stimulation tasks. Based on the overall behavioral patterns across these three tasks, conclusions about birds' understanding of a reflective surface, and their perception of the reflection as either themselves or as a conspecific, appear premature. We highlight how the high neophobia of corvids and other methodological constraints might have hindered the likelihood to approach and explore a mirror, preventing the emergence of behaviors typically associated with MSR. Furthermore, we discuss how motivational factors, methodological constraints and species differences should be considered when interpreting behavioral responses to mirrors.

Food Neophobia in Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD): A Nationwide Study in Brazil.

Food neophobia (FN) is common among children with autistic spectrum disorder (ASD), potentially impairing their health and diet quality. This study aimed to investigate and classify the prevalence of FN among 4-to-11-year-old Brazilian children with ASD. This descriptive cross-sectional study was performed by applying online a validated instrument to identify FN in Brazilian children with ASD through their caregivers' responses for a national prevalence of FN in this group. The final sample included 593 children with ASD, 80.1% of boys, with a mean age of 6.72 ± 2.31 years, and 83% having only ASD. Almost 75% (n = 436) of the children with ASD had high food neophobia scores. The fruit neophobia domain had the lowest prevalence of high neophobia (63.7%). No significant difference in FN (total, fruit, and vegetable domains) was found, considering gender and age. There was no statistical difference in FN (all domains) by the number of residents in the same household, income, or the caregivers' educational level. FN did not decrease in older children with ASD. FN is a more complex problem, requiring a multidisciplinary trained team to face the problem.

Age-related patterns of neophobia in an endangered island crow: implications for conservation and natural history

Theory suggests that the balance between unknown dangers and novel opportunities drives the evolution of species-level neophobia. Juveniles show lower neophobia than adults, within mammals and birds, presumably to help minimize the costs of avoiding beneficial novelty, and adults tend to be more neophobic, to reduce risks and focus on known stimuli. How these dynamics function in island species with fewer dangers from predators and toxic prey is not well understood. Yet, predicting neophobia levels at different age classes may be highly valuable in conservation contexts, such as species' translocation programmes, where responses to novelty can influence the effectiveness of prerelease training and animals' survival postrelease. To better understand how neophobia and its age-related patterns are expressed in an island corvid, we surveyed object neophobia in 84% of the world's critically endangered ‘alalā, Corvus hawaiiensis. Individuals repeatedly demonstrated high neophobia, suggesting that neither captivity nor their island evolution has erased this corvid-typical trait. Unexpectedly, juveniles were exceedingly more neophobic than adults, a pattern in stark contrast to common neophobia predictions and known mammalian and avian studies. We discuss the potential conservation ramifications of this age-structured result within the larger context of neophobia theory. Not only may the expression of neophobia be more complicated than previously thought but predicting such responses may also be important for conservation management that requires exposing animals to novelty.

The Influence of Tourists' Experience of Quality of Street Foods on Destination's Image, Life Satisfaction, and Word of Mouth: The Moderating Impact of Food Neophobia.

Due to growing food-related tourism, there is increasing interest about street foods worldwide, including South Korea. Many types of food-related experiences have been considered as one of the significant elements to develop positive perceptions about a destination, and street food has been recognized as a critical clue for encouraging tourists to a destination. Previous scholars mentioned street food as a public health risk element as well as a significant factor to attract tourists’ attention. Therefore, this study aims to find out how experiential quality of street foods is related to the destination image, life satisfaction, and word of mouth as perceived by tourists in night markets of South Korea. Data was collected from 325 foreigners who visited night markets and have experienced street foods in Korea. This study demonstrates the results of the influence of quality of street foods on tourist experience, on destination image, on life satisfaction, and on word of mouth in Korea. In addition, the result shows a moderating impact of food neophobia on the formulated relationships. There are statistically significant differences between groups with high neophobia perception and low neophobia perception of street foods. Based on the results of this study, we propose not only academic implications for future studies, but also managerial implications for food enterprises and food tourism organizers related to street food.

Perceived situational appropriateness for foods and beverages: consumer segmentation and relationship with stated liking

A degree of inter-individual heterogeneity in perceived situational appropriateness for foods and beverages (F&B) was predicted to exist, and empirically confirmed in studies with >1000 Australian and New Zealand adult consumers (urban dwelling). Two main consumer segments labelled “adaptive” and “conforming” were identified. The main difference between the segments was in the number of F&B items considered appropriate for a certain eating occasion, with this number being smaller in the segments that seemed to more strongly conform to common norms about what is appropriate to eat and drink at breakfast-, lunch- and dinner-time. There was a positive relationship between perceived appropriateness and stated product liking in accordance with previous reports, and generally less liked foods/beverages were regarded as less appropriate. However, there was also evidence of non-linearity in this relationship such that some highly liked foods were inappropriate for a focal eating occasion (e.g., cereal/muesli at dinner time). Demographic/socio-economic and psychographic variables were largely unsuccessful in explaining segment differences, and, in particular, generalised trait tendency to conform did not differentiate consumers in “adaptive” and “conforming” segments. Food neophobia was, in some instances, linked to reduced perceived appropriateness, but generally, consumers with high neophobia (FNS > 50) responded similarly to the aggregate sample in terms of F&Bs considered to be high vs. low in appropriateness for eating occasions taking place at breakfast-, lunch- and dinner- time. Future research should extend to other F&B stimuli relevant to Australia and New Zealand, to different consumer populations and culturally appropriate F&B stimuli, and also seek to better understand the antecedents of perceived situational appropriateness and how these underpin consumer segments based on appropriateness.

Prevalence of food neophobia in pre-school children from southern Poland and its association with eating habits, dietary intake and anthropometric parameters: a cross-sectional study.

The present study aimed to assess the prevalence of food neophobia in pre-school children and its association with eating habits, dietary intake and anthropometric parameters. Cross-sectional survey performed in 2012-2013. The Child Food Neophobia Scale (CFNS) adapted by Wardle, Carnell and Cooke was used to assess the level of food neophobia. Dietary intake was measured using an FFQ and dietary records from three days. Anthropometric measurements were taken to determine children's nutritional status and BMI was computed based on Polish growth charts. Wilcoxon's rank test and Pearson's rank-correlation coefficient were applied to compare the level of food neophobia and frequency of consumption of food products and nutrient intakes. Kindergartens in southern Poland located in or near Cracow. Three hundred and twenty-five pre-school children and their parents. Low neophobia was observed in 12·3 % and high neophobia in 10·8 % of the children examined. Children with a high level of neophobia were significantly less likely (P<0·05) to eat eggs, raw or cooked vegetables and legumes, whereas they tended to eat sweets and snacks more frequently; these foodstuffs were also eaten more often between meals. Because the neophobic children ate vegetables very rarely, their intakes of vitamin C (36 % of RDA) and thiamin (84 % of RDA) were far below the norms. No differences in anthropometric parameters according to level of food neophobia were observed. High levels of neophobia are associated with diet variation and may enhance the risk of nutritional deficiencies in children.

Explaining the Paradox of Neophobic Explorers: The Social Information Hypothesis

How animals react to novel food and objects is commonly thought of as a crucial step toward innovations. One would therefore expect innovative species to be attracted to novelty and benefit from a combination of low neophobia and a high motivation to explore. Here we draw attention to the innovation paradox: the most innovative species tend to show neophobic reactions when confronted with novel objects or food, but can use social cues to overcome their initial neophobia. Work on novelty response has highlighted the role of ecological factors as determinants of neophobia and exploration tendency. We examine social influences on novelty response and present the idea that social factors enable some species to maintain the paradoxical combination of high neophobia and high exploration tendency. We compare primates with other species, to assess the extent to which primates are unusual. We review empirical studies that show how intrinsic neophobia is generally overcome by social facilitation and social information, i.e., the presence of experts, especially in species with slow life history, probably because social information reduces risk. We also briefly discuss the role of environmental risk in reducing intrinsic neophobia, in particular its absence in captivity. We draw attention to a strong neophobia-reducing effect of being in captivity, due to humans acting as sources of social information. We propose that species showing the paradoxical combination of strong neophobia and strong exploration tendency use social information to select aspects of the environment worth exploring. The social information hypothesis thus offers an explanation for the paradox of neophobic explorers.

Neophobia and social tolerance are related to breeding group size in a semi-colonial bird

In semi-colonial species, some individuals choose to breed in isolation while others aggregate in breeding colonies. The origin and the maintenance of this pattern have been questioned, and inherited phenotype dependency of group breeding benefits has been invoked as one of the possible mechanisms for the evolution of semi-coloniality. Using field observations and behavioural tests in the semi-colonial barn swallow (Hirundo rustica), we tested the hypothesis that breeding group size is related to personality. We measured neophobia (the fear and avoidance of new things) and social tolerance of adults and showed that these two independent traits of personality are strongly related to breeding group size. The biggest colonies hosted birds with higher neophobia, and larger groups also hosted females with higher social tolerance. This parallel between group size and group composition in terms of individual personality offers a better understanding of the observed diversity in breeding group size in this species. Further studies are, however, needed to better understand the origin of the link between individual personality and group breeding strategies.

Effects of maternal experience on fearfulness and maternal behaviour in a precocial bird

Brood care can improve with experience, and experience under natural conditions increases with age. We aimed to evaluate the relative effect of experience by comparing experienced and inexperienced females of the same age under controlled conditions. Using 18 experienced (XP) and 22 inexperienced (NXP) female Japanese quail, Coturnix coturnix japonica. of the same age, we monitored maternal behaviour towards foster chicks. We evaluated the social and emotional reactivity of these females before the breeding period and of the fostered chicks after separation from their mothers. Thus, we determined both how maternal experience affects adult females' nonmaternal behaviour and how potential differences in their maternal behaviour affect chicks' behavioural development. We found that although previous breeding experience per se did not influence either their general fearfulness or their sociality, it did influence the way females coped with novelty. Although most of the maternal care variables did not differ significantly between XP and NXP females, we found several differences, mainly concerning first-time female breeders' more abusive behaviour during the first few days of the breeding period. We suggest that these differences in care are related more to inexperienced females' higher neophobia than to an improvement in the quality of care with experience. In tests, chicks showed differences similar to those of their mothers: chicks brooded by inexperienced females reacted more to novelty than chicks brooded by experienced females. We consider this result to be a case of nongenomic maternal transmission.

Migratory New World Blackbirds (Icterids) Are More Neophobic than Closely Related Resident Icterids

Environments undergo short-term and long-term changes due to natural or human-induced events. Animals differ in their ability to cope with such changes which can be related to their ecology. Changes in the environment often elicit avoidance reactions (neophobia) which protect animals from dangerous situations but can also inhibit exploration and familiarization with novel situations and thus, learning about new resources. Studies investigating the relationship between a species’ ecology and its neophobia have so far been restricted to comparing only a few species and mainly in captivity. The current study investigated neophobia reactions to experimentally-induced changes in the natural environment of six closely-related blackbird species (Icteridae), including two species represented by two distinct populations. For analyses, neophobic reactions (difference in number of birds feeding and time spent feeding with and without novel objects) were related to several measures of ecological plasticity and the migratory strategy (resident or migratory) of the population. Phylogenetic relationships were incorporated into the analysis. The degree of neophobia was related to migratory strategy with migrants expressing much higher neophobia (fewer birds feeding and for a shorter time with objects present) than residents. Furthermore, neophobia showed a relationship to diet breadth with fewer individuals of diet generalists than specialists returning when objects were present supporting the dangerous niche hypothesis. Residents may have evolved lower neophobia as costs of missing out on opportunities may be higher for residents than migrants as the former are restricted to a smaller area. Lower neophobia allows them approaching changes in the environment (e.g. novel objects) quickly, thereby securing access to resources. Additionally, residents have a greater familiarity with similar situations in the area than migrants and the latter may, therefore, initially stay behind resident species.

Reprint of Female C57BL/6 mice show consistent individual differences in spontaneous interaction with environmental enrichment that are predicted by neophobia

Environmental enrichment typically improves learning, increases cortical thickness and hippocampal neurogenesis, reduces anxiety, and reduces stereotypic behaviour, yet sometimes such effects are absent or even reversed. We investigated whether neophobia governs how mice interact with enrichments, since this could explain why enrichments vary in impact. Female C57BL/6 mice, previously screened for neophobia, had free access to enriched cages connected to their standard cages. The relative consumption of food in each cage revealed approximate dwelling times; the use of two enrichments was also measured. High neophobia significantly predicted reduced use of the enriched cage. Thus even within this homogeneous population, provided with identical enrichments, differential neophobia predicted differential enrichment use.

Female C57BL/6 mice show consistent individual differences in spontaneous interaction with environmental enrichment that are predicted by neophobia

Environmental enrichment typically improves learning, increases cortical thickness and hippocampal neurogenesis, reduces anxiety, and reduces stereotypic behaviour, yet sometimes such effects are absent or even reversed. We investigated whether neophobia governs how mice interact with enrichments, since this could explain why enrichments vary in impact. Female C57BL/6 mice, previously screened for neophobia, had free access to enriched cages connected to their standard cages. The relative consumption of food in each cage revealed approximate dwelling times; the use of two enrichments was also measured. High neophobia significantly predicted reduced use of the enriched cage. Thus even within this homogeneous population, provided with identical enrichments, differential neophobia predicted differential enrichment use.

The genetic architecture of hyponeophagia and the action of diazepam in rats.

Rats of 18 genotypes derived from the Roman selected strains were tested for inhibition of feeding due to novelty (hyponeophagia) in the absence or presence of 1 mg/kg diazepam. The resulting data from three behavioral indices were subjected to the Hayman [(1954). Biometrics10:235–244], variance/covariance, Mendelian cross, and single-test cross analyses. Additive genetic variation, directional dominance for high neophobia, and some nonallelic interaction were detected. The genetic architecture of the separate behavioral indices, and its modification in the drugged subjects, was discussed in relation to evolutionary adaptation and the anxiolytic and appetite-enhancing actions of the drug.

Dominance and neophobia in rats

Pairs of rats competed with one another for access to a drinking nozzle that delivered either water or a novel 3% vinegar solution. The members of each dyad that were dominant (i.e., most successful in controlling access to the drinking nozzle) when competing for water were less dominant (exhibited more neophobia) than their partners when competing for the vinegar solution. A negative correlation ( r = −.59) was found between the within-dyad pattern of dominance on the water tests and the within-dyad pattern of dominance on the vinegar test. The association of high dominance with high neophobia may be a sensible survival strategy if one makes the assumption that the ability to obtain priority of access to familiar sources of sustenance and the tendency to be cautions in consuming unfamiliar substances that may prove to be toxic are behaviors likely to prolong life.