High Mountain Regions Research Articles

Cascading hazards from two recent glacial lake outburst floods in the Nyainqêntanglha range, Tibetan Plateau

Glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) are a major natural hazard in high mountain regions and have caused significant loss and damage. In the past decade, two lakes (Ranzeria Co in 2013 and Jiweng Co in 2020) burst out within a single river basin in the Nyainqêntanglha range of the Tibetan Plateau. These GLOFs destroyed local infrastructure and vegetation, and eroded river banks. In this study, field measurements, satellite remote sensing, and hydrodynamic modelling were used to reveal the causes, mechanisms, and flow dynamics of both events. Field surveys in 2020 and 2022 including lake bathymetry, lake shorelines, high-resolution aerial photographs, geomorphological data, and downstream damage provided evidence to analyze the triggers and mechanisms involved in both cases. The results show that Ranzeria Co expanded by 123% in area between 1976 and 2012, and contracted by 53% in 2013 due to the outburst. The area of Jiweng Co grew by 54% from 1976 to 2020, and shrank by 57% after the dam breach. Lake levels decreased by 20.2 ± 0.3 m in 2013 for Ranzeria Co and by 25.8 ± 0.3 m in 2020 for Jiweng Co, corresponding to water volume losses of about 7.9 × 106 (68%) and 1.1 × 107 m3 (87%), respectively. Using the hydrodynamic model HEC-RAS, it was found that the GLOFs reached peak discharges of about 7,500 m3/s with an average velocity of 8.8 m/s at Ranzeria Co, and 5,100 m3/s with 3.7 m/s at Jiweng Co. The Ranzeria Co outburst involved a cascade of processes, including the collapse of the parent glacier, a displacement wave in the lake, and the overtopping of the moraine dam. The processes of the Jiweng Co outburst flood were more complex, including an unstable lateral moraine, landslides entering the lake, rising water level, dam erosion, and finally dam failure. The study provides important insights into the mechanisms of two GLOFs, which are key to assessing and managing the hazards of critical glacial lakes in the Tibetan Plateau and its surroundings.

Epidemiological Features of the Incidence of Brucellosis in the Rural Population in Jalal-Abad Region of the Kyrgyz Republic for 2022

An epidemiological analysis of the incidence of brucellosis in the rural population of the Jalal-Abad region for 2022 is given. The incidence of brucellosis among the population living in rural areas in the Jalal-Abad region over the past three years has been on an upward trend, from 32.2 to 47.5 per 100 thousand of the population. Brucellosis is especially common in the highlands of the region. An increase in brucellosis among children under 14 years old was noted, in the Chatkal district by 1.9 times (from 54.4 to 108.8 per 100 thousand population), in the Toguz-Torun district by 1.6 times (from 45.0 to 73.9 per 100 thousand population). High incidence rates of brucellosis have been registered in high-mountainous regions, where 80-90% of the population is engaged in animal husbandry. The main age of patients with brucellosis is 30 years and older. The incidence of brucellosis is higher among men — 65.4-65.1%, and women — 34.6-34.9%. By social status: unemployed — 32%, schoolchildren — 14%, housewives — 11.7%, pensioners and workers — 10.6% each. This is due to their employment in private, individual and farm enterprises. The main source of brucellosis infection is small cattle (50.8-52.7%), then cattle (27.2-25.1%), but there is still a large proportion — unidentified sources of infection (22-22.2%).

Coffee Berry Borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae): Activity and Infestation in the High Mountain and Blue Mountain Regions of Jamaica.

Jamaica produces coffee marketed as Blue Mountain and high mountain (grown outside the Blue Mountains). Since the discovery of the coffee berry borer (CBB; Hypothenemus hampei) in Jamaica in 1978, chemical control has traditionally been the primary approach used to protect the crop from the pest. However, in the last 20 years, there has been an effort to shift towards more sustainable management strategies. The study was conducted to determine CBB activity (trap catch) and field infestation on coffee farms in the high mountains and Blue Mountains of Jamaica, over a crop cycle. A total of 27,929 and 12,921 CBBs were captured at high mountain and Blue Mountain farms, respectively. Peak CBB activity occurred in April in the high mountain region (365 CBBs/trap/month) and February in the Blue Mountain region (129 CBBs/trap/month). The highest levels of infestation were in November (33%) and October (34%) in the high mountain region and Blue Mountain region, respectively. There was no significant difference in the patterns of CBB activity and infestation between the study locations, and neither were related to the temperature or relative humidity. However, there was a significant relationship with rainfall. These data suggest that the population dynamics of the CBB may involve complex interactions among weather conditions, berry development, and agronomic practices.

NDVI Analysis for Monitoring Land-Cover Evolution on Selected Deglaciated Areas in the Gran Paradiso Group (Italian Western Alps)

The ongoing climate warming is affecting high-elevation areas, reducing the extent and the duration of glacier and snow covers, driving a widespread greening effect on the Alpine region. The impact assessment requires therefore the integration of the geomorphological context with altitudinal and ecological features of the study areas. The proposed approach introduces chronologically-constrained zones as geomorphological evidence for selecting deglaciated areas in the alpine and non-alpine belts. In the present study, the protected and low-anthropic-impacted areas of the Gran Paradiso Group (Italian Western Alps) were analysed using Landsat NDVI time series (1984–2022 CE). The obtained results highlighted a progressive greening even at a higher altitude, albeit not ubiquitous. The detected NDVI trends showed, moreover, how the local factors trigger the greening in low-elevation areas. Spectral reflectance showed a general decrease over time, evidencing the progressive colonisation of recently deglaciated surfaces. The results improved the discrimination between different greening rates in the deglaciated areas of the Alpine regions. The geomorphological-driven approach showed significant potential to support the comprehension of these processes, especially for fast-changing areas such as the high mountain regions.

Występowanie sytuacji meteorotropowych w Polsce w latach 2000-2020

Meteotropic situations are defined as weather that may affect human health and exacerbate diseases, especially in sensitive persons. The main objective of the paper is to determine the occurrence of meteotropic situations in Poland in years 2000–2020. The study took into account the characteristic elements such as very hot days (tmax> 30°C), frosty days (tmax< 0°C), day-to-day changes of mean daily air temperature (Δtśr> 6°C), day-to-day changes of mean daily air pressure (≥ 8 hPa) and days with insolation deficit. The research indicated that the highest heat stress strain is typical of the western and central parts of Poland and the highest low air temperature stimuli intensity of high mountain regions. Then, the highest fluctuations of the air temperature interdiurnal variation are characteristic of high mountain regions with the air pressure interdiurnal changes typical of the coastal region. According to our research, the most frequent meteotropic situation was associated with the insolation deficit occurring mostly in the north-eastern and high mountain regions of Poland.

Spatial differences of ice volume across High Mountain Asia

Advanced knowledge of glacier ice volume is vital for water resource assessment. Previous studies have focused on the estimation of ice volume, but the quantitative understanding of the spatial variability of ice volume across High Mountain regions is currently lacking. Here, we used global-scale ice thickness, debris cover and equilibrium line data to analyse ice-volume differences at various scales across High Mountain Asia (HMA). The results showed that 6.3% of the HMA glaciers are covered by debris, with debris area and volume accounting for 9% and 13.8% of the total glacier area and volume, respectively. An average debris-cover volume ratio of 13% was observed. The spatial distribution of ice volume across the HMA varies considerably from region to region. The ice volume is predominately distributed on north-facing slopes and accounts for approximately 38% of the total. It is very common in Altay and Sayan, East Tian Shan, West Kunlun, East Kunlun and Qilian Shan. Meanwhile, ice volumes in the Himalayas and Hengduan Shan are mainly distributed on the southeast aspect. Relative weight functions showed that glacier area, maximum length and average thickness are closely related to ice volume, with average relative weights of 63.7%, 22.5% and 9.8%, respectively. This study is important for the evolution of glacier volume and water resource assessment.

Comparative study of Heart Rate variability in pregnant women living in conditions of High-mountain Hypoxia of the Pamirs and the steppe zone of Central Kazakhstan

A comparative analysis of the main indicators of heart rate variability was carried out in 72 women aged 25-35 with a normal course of pregnancy, 90-30 days and 10-5 days before delivery, living in different geographical areas: high-mountainous region of Tajikistan (Pamir, Murghab village, 3600-4200m above sea level) and the steppe region of Central Kazakhstan (546m above sea level). The mechanism of compensatory-adaptive reactions, which is not typical for other regions, was revealed in pregnant women living in conditions of high-altitude hypoxia. In women living in the territory of Central Kazakhstan, at 90-30 days before delivery, pregnancy proceeded against the background of increased activity of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (SD of ANS). Recovery of heart rate variability (HRV) began 10–5 days before term birth, which is the result of a decrease in the effectiveness of adrenergic effects and an increase in the effectiveness of M-cholinergic effects on heart rate, according to some authors1,2. These changes in HRV can be successfully used as a biological marker of a mother’s readiness for childbirth, taking into account the availability and safety of the HRV method. In Pamir women, an increase in the activity of the parasympathetic division (PD) of ANS was noted 90-30 days before childbirth, and persisted until delivery. Starting from the third trimester of pregnancy, the dynamics of the values of such parameters as AMo (amplitude mode), ARI (autonomic rhythm index), RMSD (root mean square deviation), VR (variation range) showed a optimal functional state of regulatory systems before childbirth. This was also evidenced by the value of the stress index, which was in the range of 194-197 units. This mechanism of regulation in the conditions of high-altitude hypoxia ensures the normal development of the fetus and the mobilization of the functional reserves of newborns during childbirth and after birth.

Correlations between the Topography-Induced Gravity, Terrain Structure and the Seismicity in the Gulf of Panama

This study presents new maps of the topographic and geophysical setting and seismicity in the region of the Gulf of Panama. The spatial analysis is based on the comparative analysis of the datasets on geoid, free-air gravity anomaly, topography and earthquakes. The cartographic framework is developed using the Generic Mapping Tools (GMT) scripting toolset. Seismic activity in the Central America is high due to the complex geologic setting, tectonic activity and lithosphere plate subduction. The data include the Earth Gravitational Model (EGM2008), the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) and gravity grids. The seismicity data were collected from the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) catalogue on 1970–2021. The variations in data were compared to analyse correlations between the geophysical, seismic and topographic parameters. Free-air gravity, geoid and topographic data derived from the high-resolution datasets were used to investigate their effects on the main seismic sources in the region. The comparison of the maps showed that the distribution of the shallow earthquakes in the Pacific segment of Panama coincides with negative free-air anomalies and lower geoid values. The results revealed high values of geoid in the high mountainous regions of Panama (Cordilliera de Talamanca, southern coast of Peninsula de Azuero and eastern Panama, 77.5–78.5°W), which correspond to the topographic roughness in the highlands. Negative values of geoid are found over the Caribbean Sea basin (−4 to 0 m). The analyses of seismicity showed 1740 earthquake events varying by magnitudes from 2.9 to 7.8 at the depths up to 225 m (near the west coast of Colombia). A high concentration of the earthquakes is in the western region of the Panama’s shelf waters (~82–83.5°W), and on the border with Colombia (~77–78.5°W). High gravity anomalies (over 220 mGal) are found in the mountainous regions which match the geodynamic processes associated with the Earth structure and geodetic and geophysical effects. The regions of the high seismicity were defined in the Gulf of Chiriqui and eastern part of the Gulf of Panama.

Return migration and re-integration challenges in high mountain regions in Pakistan

Return migration and re-integration challenges in high mountain regions in Pakistan

An integrated deep learning and object-based image analysis approach for mapping debris-covered glaciers

Evaluating glacial change and the subsequent water stores in high mountains is becoming increasingly necessary, and in order to do this, models need reliable and consistent glacier data. These often come from global inventories, usually constructed from multi-temporal satellite imagery. However, there are limitations to these datasets. While clean ice can be mapped relatively easily using spectral band ratios, mapping debris-covered ice is more difficult due to the spectral similarity of supraglacial debris to the surrounding terrain. Therefore, analysts often employ manual delineation, a time-consuming and subjective approach to map debris-covered ice extents. Given the increasing prevalence of supraglacial debris in high mountain regions, such as High Mountain Asia, a systematic, objective approach is needed. The current study presents an approach for mapping debris-covered glaciers that integrates a convolutional neural network and object-based image analysis into one seamless classification workflow, applied to freely available and globally applicable Sentinel-2 multispectral, Landsat-8 thermal, Sentinel-1 interferometric coherence, and geomorphometric datasets. The approach is applied to three different domains in the Central Himalayan and the Karakoram ranges of High Mountain Asia that exhibit varying climatic regimes, topographies and debris-covered glacier characteristics. We evaluate the performance of the approach by comparison with a manually delineated glacier inventory, achieving F-score classification accuracies of 89.2%–93.7%. We also tested the performance of this approach on declassified panchromatic 1970 Corona KH-4B satellite imagery in the Manaslu region of Nepal, yielding accuracies of up to 88.4%. We find our approach to be robust, transferable to other regions, and accurate over regional (>4,000 km2) scales. Integrating object-based image analysis with deep-learning within a single workflow overcomes shortcomings associated with convolutional neural network classifications and permits a more flexible and robust approach for mapping debris-covered glaciers. The novel automated processing of panchromatic historical imagery, such as Corona KH-4B, opens the possibility of exploiting a wealth of multi-temporal data to understand past glacier changes.

Evaluation of post extreme floods in high mountain region: A case study of the Melamchi flood 2021 ​at the Koshi River Basin in Nepal

Extreme precipitation events and associated hazards are becoming more frequent and intense due to climate change. On June 2021, a devastating flash flood occurred in the Melamchi River in Nepal causing immense destruction to lives and property. The flood event was cascading in nature and associated with multiple driving factors. This study evaluates the post-extreme flood conditions of the Melamchi Flood 2021 (MF21). Rainfall, streamflow (discharge), and gauge height (water level) data of the nearest stations were analyzed. Since there was a lack of reliable instantaneous river discharge during the disastrous MF21, this study developed the flow rating curves at hydrometric stations. Post-extreme flood was evaluated considering upstream catchment hydrology, glacial lake outbursts, landslide damming, and the hydrodynamic propagations using the Hydrologic Engineering Center's River Analysis System (HEC-RAS) model and gauge-to-gauge (G2G) correlation. The results were then compared to field observations. The HEC-RAS model was simulated for several flood frequency periods in different return periods (namely 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 200, 500, and 1000 years). Results showed that the average 24 ​h gauge height and discharge at Nakote station (a few km downstream of landslide damming) are 15.88 ​m and 169.18 ​m3/s, in which the model-based highest frequency of 1-h extreme flood and return period can reach 716 ​m3/s in 1000 years. During MF21, the discharge of the Nakote region at the 10 ​min intervals was estimated to be with a maximum of 7162.10 ​m3/s, an average of 2207.13 ​m3/s and a minimum of 237.44 ​m3/s.Additionally, the outburst discharge from glacial lake at high elevation was estimated to be 295.14 ​m3/s contributing to downstream flooding. The model-based discharge during the past flood period was also estimated in 9 cross-section points of the river in which discharge at the damming area was 63.81 ​m3/s and downstream Dumredovan was 1206.58 ​m3/s. This research provides valuable insights to post-extreme flood evaluation and the approach can be used for other watersheds in evaluating post flood conditions.

Impact of litter burning on alpine <i>Festuca varia</i> grasslands of the Northwestern Caucasus

Fires play an important role in structure and function of terrestrial ecosystems, but their long-term impact on the composition and structure of plant communities in humid high mountain regions remains almost not studied. At the most dry alpine grasslands, dominated by a dense-tussock grass Festuca varia, with substantial accumulation of non-decomposed litter, the 23-years long experiment with regular (every two years) litter burning was established. The composition of plant community changed significantly. The mortmass (mass of litter), aboveground vascular plant biomass and relative abundance of dominants decreased substantially. In aboveground biomass the proportion of grasses decreased and that of forbs increased. The shoot numbers of Anthemis cretica, Campanula collina, Deschampsia flexuosa, Festuca ovina, Nardus stricta, and Veronica gentianoides increased after burning. Two-fold increase of alpha-diversity of vascular plants was observed on plots with burning treatment, it was twice as high as initial value, and was significantly higher than the values in the control plots. Long-term burning did not substantially change mean P, Ca and Mg content in the biomass of the most of studied species, only K content decreased in some species, while Mg content increased in Festuca varia and Nardus stricta. The increase of P and Mg content in the mortmass was observed. During long-term burning, weak soil acidification and the decrease of Ca content, as well as strong decrease of nitrogen content and the intensity of nitrogen transformation processes were observed. Generally, the observed patterns were similar to those in other studied herb communities, however, the decrease of K content during the regular burning was not reported earlier.

Combating Climate Change and Global Warming for a Sustainable Living in Harmony with Nature

As humanity has been polluting the atmosphere with greenhouse gases, the planet is getting warmed up which is triggering the frequency and the intensity of extreme events like heat waves, dry conditions, wildfires, cyclones, tornadoes, lightning, and massive flooding all over the planet Earth. There is considerable evidence that the concentration of greenhouse gases, especially that of CO2 has steadily increased in the atmosphere as a result of the indiscriminate use of fossil fuels around the world particularly during the last 70 years. The glaciers in the high mountain and polar regions are diminishing fast, sea levels are rising, and food production is being affected severely in certain parts of the world. In fact, the changing climate has currently become one of the major threats to the survival of civilization. The world scientific communities are warning of a climate emergency and requesting the decision makers to promptly respond and act to sustain life on planet Earth. To deliver net zero emissions by the year 2050, the whole world must phase out the technologies such as coal-powered thermal plants and diesel/petrol/gasoline-powered vehicles which release abundant amounts of CO2 and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere and invest in the development of clean energies such as hydel, wind, solar, space-solar, and nuclear energies. This transition to a low carbon economy with the help of these technologies together with other technologies such as hydrogen fuel, fuel cells, electric vehicles, and massive plantations is expected to take our planet Earth to a safe zone in the coming 20-30 years.

Unveiling High Mountain Communities’ Perception of Climate Change Impact on Lives and Livelihoods in Gilgit-Baltistan: Evidence from People-Centric Approach

ABSTRACT Climate change poses a significant threat to the lives and livelihoods of the local communities in high mountain regions. This study examines the perception of climate change and its impact on the lives and livelihoods of high mountain communities in Gilgit-Baltistan. Empirical evidence was gathered through four focused group discussions and thirty in-depth interviews with the local communities in Darkut and Shishkat areas. This study found that the local communities perceive a noticeable change in temperature patterns in terms of an increase in average temperatures and shorter winters. Such changes lead to the melting of glaciers and subsequently frequent floods during summer. The communities argue that a decrease in snowfall and alterations in the timing of snowfall directly affect the region's water supply. These changes impact the region's key livelihood activities, such as livestock rearing and agriculture, leading to reduced productivity, and an increased reliance on external food sources. This study emphasizes the urgent need for community-based adaptation strategies and support for climate-resilient livelihoods in these regions. It underscores the importance of incorporating the perspectives and experiences of high mountain communities when formulating policies and strategies to address the multifaceted impacts of climate change in mountainous areas.

Asynchronous glacial dynamics of Last Glacial Maximum mountain glaciers in the Ikh Bogd Massif, Gobi Altai mountain range, southwestern Mongolia: aspect control on glacier mass balance

Abstract. Mountain glacier mass balance is affected by factors other than climate, such as topography, slope, and aspect. In midlatitude high-mountain regions, the north–south aspect contrast can cause significant changes in insolation and melt, resulting in local asynchrony in glacial dynamics. This study documents the asynchronous response of two paleoglaciers in southwestern Mongolia to the local topoclimatic factors using 10Be exposure age dating and 2D ice surface modeling. 10Be surface exposure age dating revealed that the Ikh Artsan south-facing valley glacier culminated (MIA1) at 20.1 ± 0.7 ka, coinciding with the global Last Glacial Maximum (gLGM). In contrast, the north-facing Jargalant paleoglacier (MJ1) culminated at 17.2 ± 1.5 ka, around Heinrich Stadial 1 and during the post-gLGM Northern Hemisphere warming. Our temperature-index melt model predicts that ablation will be substantially lower on the north-facing slope, as it is exposed to less solar radiation and cooler temperatures than the south-facing slope. The 2D ice surface modeling also revealed that the south-facing Ikh Artsan Glacier abruptly retreated from its maximum extent at 20 ka, but the Jargalant Glacier on the shaded slope consistently advanced and thickened due to reduced melt until 17 ka. The timing of the modeled glacier culmination is consistent within ± 1σ of the 10Be exposure age results. Extremely old ages ranging from 636.2 to 35.9 ka were measured for the inner moraines in the Jargalant cirque (MJ2–MJ4), suggesting a problem with inheritance from boulders eroded from the summit plateau.

Landslide Susceptibility Mapping Based on Interpretable Machine Learning from the Perspective of Geomorphological Differentiation

(1) Background: The aim of this paper was to study landslide susceptibility mapping based on interpretable machine learning from the perspective of topography differentiation. (2) Methods: This paper selects three counties (Chengkou, Wushan and Wuxi counties) in northeastern Chongqing, delineated as the corrosion layered high and middle mountain region (Zone I), and three counties (Wulong, Pengshui and Shizhu counties) in southeastern Chongqing, delineated as the middle mountainous region of strong karst gorges (Zone II), as the study area. This study used a Bayesian optimization algorithm to optimize the parameters of the LightGBM and XGBoost models and construct evaluation models for each of the two regions. The model with high accuracy was selected according to the accuracy of the evaluation indicators in order to establish the landslide susceptibility mapping. The SHAP algorithm was then used to explore the landslide formation mechanisms of different landforms from both a global and local perspective. (3) Results: The AUC values for the test set in the LightGBM mode for Zones I and II are 0.8525 and 0.8859, respectively, and those for the test set in the XGBoost model are 0.8214 and 0.8375, respectively. This shows that LightGBM has a high prediction accuracy with regard to both landforms. Under the two different landform types, the elevation, land use, incision depth, distance from road and the average annual rainfall were the common dominant factors contributing most to decision making at both sites; the distance from a fault and the distance from the river have different degrees of influence under different landform types. (4) Conclusions: the optimized LightGBM-SHAP model is suitable for the analysis of landslide susceptibility in two types of landscapes, namely the corrosion layered high and middle mountain region, and the middle mountainous region of strong karst gorges, and can be used to explore the internal decision-making mechanism of the model at both the global and local levels, which makes the landslide susceptibility prediction results more realistic and transparent. This is beneficial to the selection of a landslide susceptibility index system and the early prevention and control of landslide hazards, and can provide a reference for the prediction of potential landslide hazard-prone areas and interpretable machine learning research.

Festuca coelestis Increases Drought Tolerance and Nitrogen Use via Nutrient Supply-Demand Relationship on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

Drought and nutrient deficiency pose great challenges to the successful establishment of native plants on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The dominant factors and strategies that affect the adaptation of alpine herbs to dry and nutrient-deficient environments remain unclear. Three water gradients were established using two-factor controlled experiments: low water (WL), medium water (WM), and high water (WH). The field water-holding capacities were 35%, 55%, and 75%, respectively. Nitrogen fertilizer (N) was applied at four levels: control (CK), low (FL), medium (FM), and high (FH) at 0, 110, 330, and 540 mg/kg, respectively. The results revealed that N was the main limiting factor, rather than phosphorous (P), in Festuca coelestis under drought stress. Under water shortage conditions, F. coelestis accumulated more proline and non-structural carbohydrates, especially in the aboveground parts of the leaves and stems; however, the root diameter and aboveground nitrogen use efficiency were reduced. Appropriate N addition could mitigate the adverse effects by increasing the release of N, P, and enzyme activity in the bulk soil and rhizosphere to balance their ratio, and was mainly transferred to the aboveground parts, which optimized the supply uptake relationship. The effects of water and fertilizer on the physiological adaptability and nutrient utilization of F. coelestis were verified using structural equation modeling. Based on their different sensitivities to water and nitrogen, the WHFM treatment was more suitable for F. coelestis establishment. Our results demonstrated that the disproportionate nutrient supply ability and preferential supply aboveground compared to below ground were the main factors influencing F. coelestis seedling establishment under drought conditions. This study provides evidence for a better understanding of herbaceous plants living in high mountain regions and offers important information for reducing the risk of ecological restoration failure in similar alpine regions.

Bioremediation approaches for oil contaminated soils in extremely high-mountainous conditions

Development of methods for bioremediation of soils contaminated with petroleum products is one of the most urgent tasks of our time. This task is more difficult to perform in high-mountainous landscapes, at an altitude of more than 4 000 m a.s.l. Moreover, these high-mountain ecosystems are the most vulnerable to various kinds of anthropogenic impacts, and therefore the relevance of bioremediation is obvious. The research was conducted in the high-altitude ecosystems of the Kyrgyz Republic at the Kumtor mine. In this study was carried out on the bioremediation of oil contaminated soil using biostimulation, bioaugmentation and biostimulation + bioaugmentation remediation techniques for 90 days in the climatic conditions of high mountain region. The biostimulation treatment showed the highest total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) biodegradation percentage 62.78% compared to the bioaugmentation 50.63% and biostimulation + bioaugmentation 49.11%. Thus, the method of biostimulation proved to be the most effective method for bioremediation of soils contaminated with petroleum products. The application of this method could be one of the successful methods of recycling contaminated soils. This study demonstrated the possibility of restoring TPH-polluted soils using biological methods of soil treatment in climatic cold conditions of high mountains.

Dynamics of Mountain Urbanisation: Evidence from the Trans-Himalayan Town of Kargil, Ladakh, India

Small and medium-sized towns in the high mountain regions of South Asia are characterised by rapid and mostly unplanned urbanisation processes, regularly resulting in an increased risk of urban agglomerations being exposed to natural hazards. After the administrative capital of Leh, Kargil town is the second-largest urban centre in the Union Territory (UT) of Ladakh. This article discusses the development and dynamics of the Trans-Himalayan town in terms of its historical development, expansion and population; land use and land cover (LULC) change; and the specific role of tourism. Based on a multi-temporal approach using high-resolution satellite images, statistical data and field surveys, the urban landscape dynamics of Kargil town are analysed. The total population of this town increased almost tenfold from 1681 in 1961 to 16,338 in 2011, which resulted in an increase in the urban population from 3.7% to 11.6%, while the population of the entire Kargil district only tripled from 45,064 to 140,802 over the same period. Migration from rural villages to Kargil town has been a major cause for the construction and growth of new residential colonies and settlements. The built-up area increased more than ninefold from 0.25 km2 (1.3%) to 2.30 km2 (11.7%) between 1965 and 2020. During the same period, irrigated land and hygrophilous vegetation increased considerably from 4.51 km2 (23.0%) to 8.56 km2 (43.6%) due to the construction of new water channels. Similarly, the barren area decreased significantly from 14.88 km2 (75.8%) to 8.78 km2 (44.7%) between 1965 and 2020. Moreover, the massive increase in tourist arrivals has led to the construction of more hotels, guesthouses and travel agencies. These key factors play a significant role in the emergence, growth and development of this high-mountain town.

Crucial, But Not Systematically Investigated: Rock Glaciers, the Concealed Water Reservoirs of the Himalayas: An Opinion

The current article is an opinion on the sensitivity of high mountain regions which are the most fragile, sensitive and vulnerable to ongoing climate change. Its impacts are especially severe on the high mountain communities owing to their weak socio-economic profile, limited livelihood resources and agricultural land. The melting of glaciers and changes in the snow cover under the climate change scenario is leading to the scarcity of freshwater supplies, affecting both local and downstream communities. Changes in the precipitation patterns have been suggested to cause droughts, impact restricted agriculture, and limit the availability of water for domestic use. Additionally, the high mountain areas contain distinct flora and fauna, and climate change is not just altering them, but also has resulted in biodiversity loss as species are unable to adapt to the changing climate. Because of its higher altitudes and semi-arid to arid climate, the consequences of climate change are more evident in the higher Himalayas. Climate change is affecting the availability of key resources, such as freshwater and agriculture and pasture lands, resulting in food and water insecurity and their reliance on imports from other regions. As a result, high mountain communities in the Himalayas are progressively shifting to higher glacier valleys in search of suitable cultivable land with adequate irrigation. People are engaging in agro-pastoral activities around thermokarst lakes (Oasis) atop rock glaciers as part of this endeavour. Such actions underscore the crucial role of rock glaciers in dealing with and adjusting to the consequences of climate change. Despite its relevance, rock glacier research in the Himalayan region is still in its infancy. The purpose of this work is to emphasise the significance of these major climate-resilient water resources, as well as the methodology that must be adopted for their systematic and compressive investigations.