Higher-level Comprehension Research Articles

Reading Objects, Watching YouTube, Writing Biography, and Teaching Life Writing: Student Engagement When Learning Online During Covid-19

ABSTRACT In this article we discuss our experiences of team teaching via ‘emergency remote teaching’ a hybrid literature/creative writing subject, ‘Life Writing’, during 2020, amid the Covid-19 pandemic. We explore how a focus on concepts and issues foundational to life writing as a discipline provided unique points of engagement at a challenging time for students. We discuss our experiences via case studies ranging from object life writing to YouTube and biography. The article explains our methods and how we approached with extra sensitivity the fact of challenging conditions affecting student lives and learning during this time. We found that our students showed strong evidence of deep engagement with the subject and its learning activities and assessments. Through participation, the students showed high-level comprehension and produced relevant and authentic work. The context resulted in learning and teaching that was necessarily personal and allowed students to show their knowledge of life narrative through an engagement with theory and personal practice.

Evaluation of the Clinical Application of Multi-Color Optical Coherence Tomography as a Diagnostic Tool for Different Retinal Pathologies

Objective: To assess clinical application of multi-color OCT (Optical Coherence Tomography) with the utilization of the CSLO (Confocal Scanning Laser-Ophthalmoscopy) in various pathologies of retina. Methodology: This study was conducted at in Benazir Bhutto Shaheed Teaching Hospital Abbottabad and the duration of this study was from April 2021 to June 2021. There were thirty-six patients in this research study who were suffering from various retinal pathologies as disorders of vitreomacular interface, diabetic retinopathy and macular degeneration related with age with the utilization of multi-color OCT as a tool of screening. Results: This study discovered that ophthalmologist were able to get high resolution images of CSLO reflectance because of the automatic tracking system of this particular tool (new version). Confocal optics may be used to avoid the scattering of light. Some of the differences were presence of hemorrhages and presences of pigment changes when comparison with the conventional CFP was performed. Approximately 20.0% patients with AMD, 37.50% patients with diabetes and 100% patients suffering from disorders of vitreomacular interface could have been missed easily with the utilization of CFP. Conclusions: The findings conclude that multi-color OCT is able to deliver information & figures far more confident was compared to conventional method of CFP, because it is much influenced by the media opacities. For the best interpretation of the Multi-color OCT, more watchfulness of the ophthalmologists is necessary with high level of comprehensiveness. Keywords: Retinal Pathologies, Multi-Color, Diabetic Retinopathy, Optical Coherence Tomography.

ПЕРСПЕКТИВИ ТРАНСДИСЦИПЛІНАРНОСТІ ЯК СВІТОГЛЯДНО-МЕТОДОЛОГІЧНОЇ ОСНОВИ ПРАВА

The article is devoted to the analysis of prospects transdisciplinarity as the basis of law. It is proved that at the heart of the modern crisis, including law, is the crisis of the person himself, the overcoming of which can become a way out of a difficult situation in all spheres of life and activities of the society. It is shown that such opportunities open up from the standpoint of transdisciplinarity as a new way of developing scientiŕc knowledge, for the ŕrst time overcoming the subject-object discontinuity, a traditional feature of European rationality, and rises to a higher level of comprehension of any problem formed by a person and/or threatening him. In the work, considerable attention is paid to the views of B. Nicolescu, who substantiates the subject-object unity as a sign of transdisciplinarity. It is proved that transdisciplinarity for law means the formation of a new theory of law and, at the same time, changes in legal practice, which should provide for the responsibility of a person for actions before the whole world, of which he is a part. It is shown that transdisciplinarity is able to change both individual branches of law and the nature of interaction between them, oriented towards a person and his well-being as a common goal; to overcome the problem of infinity of normative-legal deviations in the regulation of public relations by the state; combine all the diversity of types of law and its tasks; become an evolutionary path for the development of the law of the entire world community. It is concluded that the solution of the problems of modern law requires going beyond the subject field of only legal science, since these problems are meta- legal, civilizational and universal in nature. A transdisciplinary approach is able to create a basis for building a universal human right, overcome the problem of its “subjectivity”, direct it to the preservation and development of human and the world.

Why subtitle speed matters: Evidence from word skipping and rereading

AbstractHigh subtitle speed undoubtedly impacts the viewer experience. However, little is known about how fast subtitles might impact the reading of individual words. This article presents new findings on the effect of subtitle speed on viewers’ reading behavior using word-based eye-tracking measures with specific attention to word skipping and rereading. In multimodal reading situations such as reading subtitles in video, rereading allows people to correct for oculomotor error or comprehension failure during linguistic processing or integrate words with elements of the image to build a situation model of the video. However, the opportunity to reread words, to read the majority of the words in the subtitle and to read subtitles to completion, is likely to be compromised when subtitles are too fast. Participants watched videos with subtitles at 12, 20, and 28 characters per second (cps) while their eye movements were recorded. It was found that comprehension declined as speed increased. Eye movement records also showed that faster subtitles resulted in more incomplete reading of subtitles. Furthermore, increased speed also caused fewer words to be reread following both horizontal eye movements (likely resulting in reduced lexical processing) and vertical eye movements (which would likely reduce higher-level comprehension and integration).

Designing STEM-Specific Student-Friendly Reading Content for the Engineering English Classroom

<bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Introduction:</b> Teachers of English for specific purposes (ESP) face challenges when helping engineering students to comprehend discipline-specific reading materials because these students have not been exposed to engineering reading materials at the secondary-school level. This study examines how to best create Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM)-specific, student-friendly reading materials for engineering learners to make the transition from general topics to engineering topics comfortable. <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">About the case:</b> Working at affiliated colleges of Anna University, Chennai, India, we substituted reading materials for those used in textbooks to improve our students’ receptivity to reading classes. We discuss reading as a skill, the level of reading comprehension needed in the engineering context, and its relevance to technical and professional communication. <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Situating the case:</b> The study focuses on the need to design materials for the engineering classroom. <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Methods:</b> Our methods include a present-situation analysis to examine the challenges that teachers encounter, and analysis of qualitative feedback on the reading materials and activities introduced in the classroom. <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Results and discussion:</b> The paper includes our experiences in designing reading materials: conducting the present-situation analysis, finding and designing appropriate reading materials, creating and implementing reading activities, and collecting feedback. The responses of the learners indicate that introducing STEM-specific material may increase the learners’ participation and improve their comprehension skills. <bold xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Conclusion:</b> The study shows that STEM-specific, student-friendly reading materials fostered a positive attitude and improved, high-level comprehension.

Profiles of Oral and Reading Comprehension in Poor Comprehenders

This study aimed to profile the sublexical, lexical, and text level language skills, and cognitive processes of a sub-group of children with poor reading comprehension known as poor comprehenders. An assessment protocol was developed to assess each of the components from Perfetti and Stafura’s Reading Systems Framework. A comprehensive profile was obtained for 17 poor comprehenders in School Years 3–6 (aged 8–11 years), each assessed individually. Consistent with previous research, and irrespective of age, the poor comprehenders in this study did not have difficulty with sublexical and word reading skills overall. Unexpectedly, only two children had difficulty with the lower-level language tasks at the Lexicon and sentence sub-level of the Reading Systems Framework. In contrast, 15 poor comprehenders had difficulty with higher-level comprehension processes. All children had weak verbal working memory, supporting previous research findings. The study provides direction for clinical assessment tasks for use with this population.

An Analysis of Personalized Learning Opportunities in 3D VR

Due to its constantly developing technological background, VR and AR technology has been gaining increasing popularity not just in industry or business but in education as well. Research in the field of Cognitive Infocommunications (CogInfoCom) shows that using existing digital technologies, online collaboration and cooperation technologies in 3D VR supports cognitive processes, including the finding, processing, memorization and recalling of information. 3D VR environments are also capable of providing users with a much higher level of comprehension when it comes to sharing and interpreting digital workflows. The paper presents a study carried out with the participation of 90 students. The aim of this study is to investigate how the application of 3D VR platforms as personalized educational environments can also increase VR learning efficiency. Besides considering participants’ test performance, metrics such as results on visual, auditory and reading-based learning tests for information acquisition, as well as responses on Kolb’s learning styles questionnaires are taken into consideration. The participants’ learning styles, information acquisition habits were also observed, allowing us to create and offer a variety of learning pathways based on a variety of content types in the 3D VR environment. The students within the study were divided into two groups: a test group receiving personalized training in the MaxWhere 3D VR classroom, and a control group that studied in a general MaxWhere 3D VR space. This research applies both quantitative and qualitative methods to report findings. The goal was to create adaptive learning environments capable of deriving models of learners and providing personalized learning experiences. We studied the correlation between effectiveness of the tasks and Kolb’s learning styles. The study shows the major importance of choosing the optimal task type regarding each Kolb learning style and personalized learning environment. The MaxWhere 3D spaces show a high potential for personalizing VR education. The non-intrusive guiding capabilities of VR environments and of the educational content integrated in the 3D VR spaces were very successful, because the students were able to score 20 percent higher on the tests after studying in VR than after using traditional educational tools. Students also performed the same tasks with 8-10 percent faster response times.

The Levels Of Questions Used In The English Textbook Entitled “Stop Bullying Now”For The Xi Grade Of Senior High School

Reading comprehension in Indonesian students is very weak. It is proven by Pisa 2018, a result which states that from a comparison between science, mathematics, and reading comprehension, Indonesian students are ranked 74th in the sixth from bottom. This article aims to analyze the level of questions used in an English textbook entitled "Stop Bullying Now" for class XI SMA published by the Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia in 2017. This analysis uses Barrett's taxonomy to test reading comprehension. Questions in the book with content analysis of qualitative research. Based on Barrett's taxonomy, there are five levels of reading comprehension questions: literal comprehension, reorganization, inferential, evaluation, and appreciation. The results showed that the level of literal understanding (7.45%), reorganization (0 %), inferential (39.36%), evaluation (36.17%), and appreciation (17.02%). This shows that the higher-level comprehension is dominant over lower-level comprehension, but the level is not evenly distributed in all texts. The results of this study can provide an overview of the level of reading comprehension questions used in the English textbook entitled "Stop Bullying Now," which is helpful for teachers as a guide in learning English reading comprehension.

Gamified E-Reading Experiences and Their Impact on Reading Comprehension and Attitude in EFL Classes

The use of computers and electronic devices for recreational reading and for reading in educational settings has gone up significantly in recent years. Whereas the digital revolution is rapidly changing the world, it is also changing education. This study examined the perceptions of secondary school EFL learners in Turkey of their e-reading experiences based on their gamified electronic reading practices in school and their influence on reading comprehension performance in an EFL class. The findings revealed that the implementation of e-book reading resulted in higher comprehension levels and more positive reading attitudes. Participant students showed a preference for printed books rather than electronic books for leisure due to the sense of ownership that the printed text storybooks offered. However, the results indicate that EFL learners' use of screen reading has the potential to improve students' attitudes towards reading in educational settings.

Using verbal protocol to examine construction of meaning from social studies texts

Verbal protocol methodology is used to examine how fourth-grade students construct meaning as they read and respond to two informational social studies texts. Results indicate most students are active readers, often engaging in higher-level comprehension strategies and critical thinking as they read independently. However, critical thinking and comprehension processes are not often captured in their responses to end-of-reading questions (ERQ), which as a result have limited scope and utility for guiding social studies instruction. Results also indicate that when students change their patterns of strategy use for reading and responding to text in response to a change in text, they are more successful on the ERQ than when their strategy use remains stagnant.

Watching television in a home environment: effects on children’s attention, problem solving and comprehension

ABSTRACT Correlational studies have suggested some harmful effects of television viewing in early childhood, especially for the viewing of fast-paced entertainment programs. However, this has not been consistently supported by experimental studies, many of which have lacked ecological validity. The current study explores the effects of pace of program on the attention, problem solving and comprehension of 41 3- and 4-year-olds using an ecologically valid experimental design. Children were visited twice at home; on each visit they were shown an episode of a popular animated entertainment program which differed in pace: one faster paced, one slower paced. Children’s behavior was coded for attention and arousal during viewing, attention, and effort on a problem-solving task after viewing, and performance on unrelated (problem-solving) and related (program comprehension) tasks. The faster-paced program was attended to more, while 3-year-olds showed more attention and effort on the problem-solving task after watching the slower program, but there were no significant differences in performance on unrelated or related tasks depending on pace. The lack of differences observed in this naturalistic setting together with the high levels of comprehension of the programs watched provides some evidence to counter the “harm” perceived in young children watching fast-paced entertainment programs.

Mind Your Words, Mind Your Audience: Effect of Comprehension on Crowdfunding Success with Varying Language Complexity and Investment Timing

Crowdfunding has emerged as an essential alternative financing channel in recent years. However, it is recognized that most investors in crowdfunding are laypeople with limited experience of investment and therefore have relatively weak ability of understanding complex project information. Consequently, crowdfunding project success depends heavily on proper management of language complexity in various stages of project information revelation. Unfortunately, previous studies on language complexity effect have no consistent conclusions, thus leaving an important research gap to be tackled. To renewal this line of research innovatively in the context of crowdfunding, we examine the time-varying effect of language complexity in various project stages. To reveal the underlying mechanism, we propose a dual-process framework of project information comprehension. We operationalize the comprehension process in crowdfunding as the interaction effect of language complexity measured by an innovative machine learning approach and investor experience proxied by investment timing. We lay a firm foundation of this research effort by examining the impacts of multiple relevant theories such as the elaboration likelihood model in the context of crowdfunding. We empirically examine the time-varying effect of language complexity and comprehension effect by employing a panel dataset collected from Kickstarter. Our findings confirm that the effect of language complexity on project performance changes as the project progresses, leading to a new strategic approach for crowdfunding management with respect to project information revelation. We also find that the impacts of textual linguistic factors (the central route signals) on investors will dominate at the high level of comprehension, and non-textual heuristic factors (peripheral route signals) will dominate at the low level of comprehension; this is an expansion of the elaboration likelihood model while applying it in the context of crowdfunding. We conclude by examining why our findings are of significant theoretical and practical importance.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ISLAMIC INTEGRATED BIOCHEMICAL TEACHING MATERIALS USING FOUR STEPS TEACHING METHOD

Islamic-integrated learning is one of the implementations in realizing UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta’s vision. So, the teaching materials which are integrated with Islamic features are needed. This research aims to develop a biochemistry teaching material in the form of an Islamic-integrated enrichment book specifically on the theory of amino acid and protein that is feasible to be used. The method used in this study is the research and development method through the Four Steps Teaching Material Development (4S-TMD), which consists of selection, structurization, characterization, and reduction. The research data are obtained from the validation of Islamic-integrated chemical study by expert lecturers. The validation result was analyzed using the Guttman Scale, a comprehensive test of concept in the form of the main idea writing test on 60 students of 2016 generation of chemistry education were analyzed by giving a score of 1 for each correct answer, and a score of 0 for wrong answers, and the book's feasibility test in terms of language, presentation, performance, and graphic validated by media expert lecturers, and were analyzed using the Rating Scale. The validation of the Islamic-integrated chemistry shows that all concepts are powerful and worthy of being presented, with the percentage of 91.4%. The comprehensive test of concept shows that all of the concepts have a high level of comprehension. The percentage of students’ comprehensions of all concepts amounted to 92.7%, and all of the concepts are included in the easy category. Therefore there is no need for a reduction phase. Based on the results of the feasibility test of the book, it is obtained the average percentage of 85.5%, which indicates that the Islamic-integrated enrichment book of amino acid and protein material is suitable to be used in the learning of Islamic-integrated biochemistry course to increase student knowledge on biochemical concepts through Islamic aspects which can increase the faith to Allah SWT.

Summary Strategies for Literary Texts in English

Abstract One of the problems when students go to university is that they are faced with insufficient skills (reading, summarizing and writing). These skills are not just an option for students – they are a necessity. One of these skills is text summarizing. Summarizing strategies may be called the gist of the literary text. Different summarization strategies may be required for different text types and lengths. The ability to summarize well means your reading comprehension and writing skill should be excellent. Summarization is a high-level comprehension strategy which is effective in improving reading achievement and text summary quality. Several approaches have been developed to analyse summarizing skills which are required to teach and learn English at all levels especially at university level. The research was conducted among students of the second year English department at University of Vlora. The summaries reflect the major differences among the strategies used by skilled and unskilled students. The skilled students produce coherent linguistic and syntactic structures. Skilled (high-proficiency) students use semantic and prepositional phrases more than unskilled students (low-proficiency). Thus, the skilled students do not distort ideas of the original text but distort subject-verb order. When they summarize, we can easily distinguish the way in which they combine idea units across two or more paragraphs. The summaries reflect that students write very long sentences. The margin of errors is considerable due to the mother tongue influence and their level of English.

Symmetries and asymmetries in children's peer-group reading discussions

This paper reports a research project exploring children's peer interactions in group reading discussions where a teacher was not present as an authoritative guide. This context reflects a reality of classroom teaching where most children in the class are completing tasks independently while the teacher is working other groups. In the study, four quartets of ten year-old children in the UK and Mexico were recorded as they discussed different texts together and this paper reports the findings from their engagement with The Lost Thing by Shaun Tan. In the paper, we focus on the symmetries and asymmetries apparent in the children's peer talk to consider how they engage together to make meaning from the text they are reading. To this end we focus on two strands of analysis related to children's talk within their groups: (a) the function of utterances within their speech turns; and (b) the dynamics of the interaction, that is, the organisation of the talk into topical episodes. By considering these two strands of analysis, we are able to illuminate the nuances of a/symmetries in small-group reading contexts as we concentrate on how the children use language and action to influence the direction of, and contribute to, the discussions. The results find children authoritatively shifted the discussion forward into new topics using different means, and displayed evidence of high-level comprehension as they engaged with the ideas of each other. The two strands of analysis complemented each other as they illustrated not only the resources the children drew on to shift the movement of the discussion, but how their language enabled this movement forward. The results also highlighted differences in how the children perceived their goals and responsibilities within the task and groups.

TBL Through Music to Foster Students’ Lexical Competence

The topic of this qualitative action research was to evidence how Task Based Learning (TBL) through music could foster students’ lexical competence in a multi grade school based on “Escuela Nueva”. The population of the research was a primary school of a public institution that had difficulties in their lexical competence. The goal of this research was to explore the impact that Task Based Learning through music had on students’ lexical competence in an environment of “Escuela Nueva”. The instruments to gather the data were field notes, videotape recordings, pictures, and questionnaires. Findings of this study evidenced that this type of musical tasks can foster lexical competence and engage students to participate actively in class. Likewise, results showed that students were able to relate and recognize words, thanks to the implementation of musical activities as well as the fact that practicing vocabulary with songs can become a good strategy to develop students’ higher level of comprehension.

Making Connections: A Metacognitive Teaching Strategy in Enhancing Students’ Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension skill is crucial for success beyond academic endeavor. However, even academic success can never be possible when a student does not understand the importance of developing good reading comprehension. Using one-group pretest–posttest research design, the study explored the effect of making connections as a metacognitive teaching strategy to enhance the students’ reading comprehension. Purposively selected college students were given assessments and intervention. Based on the data gathered from the pretest and posttest, findings revealed that application of metacognitive teaching strategy, making connections has a positive effect on enhancing the students’ level of reading comprehension as indicated by an increase from average to very high level. The six levels of reading comprehension which were the literal, inferential, appreciative, critique, and evaluative also showed improvement. Results of the Metacognitive Awareness Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) indicated that students were unconsciously using Global reading, Problem-solving, and Support reading strategies. Focus group discussion revealed factors that affect the reading comprehension such as interest, teaching styles, and language. The study suggested the important role that educators play in maximizing the benefits of making connections and making use of any other metacognitive strategy towards developing higher level of comprehension leading to academic success.

Missing the joke: Reduced rereading of garden-path jokes during mind-wandering.

Mind-wandering (i.e., thoughts irrelevant to the current task) occurs frequently during reading. The current study examined whether mind-wandering was associated with reduced rereading when the reader read the so-called garden-path jokes. In a garden-path joke, the reader's initial interpretation is violated by the final punchline, and the violation creates a semantic incongruity that needs to be resolved (e.g., "My girlfriend has read so many negative things about smoking. Therefore, she decided to quit reading."). Rereading text prior to the punchline can help resolve the incongruity. In a main study and a preregistered replication, participants read jokes and nonfunny controls embedded in filler texts and responded to thought probes that assessed intentional and unintentional mind-wandering. Results were consistent across the two studies: When the reader was not mind-wandering, jokes elicited more rereading (from the punchline) than the nonfunny controls did, and had a recall advantage over the nonfunny controls. During mind-wandering, however, the additional eye movement processing and the recall advantage of jokes were generally reduced. These results show that mind-wandering is associated with reduced rereading, which is important for resolving higher level comprehension difficulties. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

An exploration of higher-level language comprehension deficits and factors influencing them following blast TBI in US veterans

ABSTRACTPrimary Objective. The objective of this study was to investigate the factors that might have a negative influence on auditory processing and higher-level language processing in the US veterans of the recent foreign wars (Iraq and Afghanistan).Research Design. Exploratory, cross-sectional, correlational, prospective, cohort-design.Methods and Procedures. The experimental group consisted of 12 US veterans of war (10 males and 2 females) with blast exposure. The control group consisted of six US veterans (5 males and 1 female) without the history of blast exposure. Both groups were matched in mean age. Both groups were tested on Boston Assessment of Traumatic Brain Injury, Consonant Trigrams Test, Symbol Digit Modality Test, Trail Making Test, SCAN-3, CELF-5-Metalinguistics, CASL, and an unpublished test on the processing of sentence prosody.Main Outcomes and Results. Significant group differences in attention, and time-compressed sentence processing were found. For those veterans (in the experimental group) who were not wearing their helmets at the time of blast, additional significant differences were noted with inferencing and auditory figure-ground tasks.Conclusions: Findings support the importance of including speech/language pathologists in all stages of recovery for veterans post-blast exposure.

Prevalence, molecular characteristics and antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of MRSA in hospitalized and nonhospitalized patients in Barbados.

The epidemiology and clonality of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has not been investigated, as not much research or surveillance has been undertaken to identify and characterize the circulating MRSA strains in Barbados. Prevalence rates, molecular characteristics and antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of MRSA infections in hospitalized and nonhospitalized patients were investigated. A total of 293 isolates were included in the study, with 100 from the hospital and 193 from the public health laboratory. Isolates were collected over a period of 1 (2015–2016) and 3 years (2013–2016) respectively. MRSA was identified using standard microbiologic techniques and was further analysed by multiplex PCR for the presence of the spa, mec gene complex typing and PVL genes (lukS-PV and lukF-PV). A prevalence rate of 19.7% was calculated for those hospitalized. All hospital isolates were sensitive to vancomycin, rifampin, linezolid and cotrimoxazole (trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole), whilst 82% were sensitive to clindamycin. The PVL gene was detected in 76% of hospital isolates. In the community isolates, resistance was observed in erythromycin (100%), ciprofloxacin (97.4%), clindamycin (13%) and cotrimoxazole (5.7%). There was no resistance to vancomycin. The PVL gene was detected in 97.9% of the isolates, the mecA gene in only 2.1% and the mecC gene in 0%. Most MRSA isolates were community acquired in both settings, and the antimicrobial susceptibility profile was similar, suggesting transmission of community-associated MRSA into the hospital environment. Further harmonization of antimicrobial policy for the treatment of MRSA (and by extension other pathogens) should be implemented to quell ongoing transmission. We found that 93.4% of MRSA in Barbados treated in the primary healthcare system were sensitive to cotrimoxazole. By typing MRSA isolates and drawing interferences on transmission on the basis of genetic relatedness, transmission pathways may be tracked. Further studies must be performed for this high level of comprehensiveness so that with the surveillance of MRSA, effective strategies may be developed to prevent or limit transmission.