High-level Ones Research Articles

Increasing hierarchical complexity throughout the history of life: phylogenetic tests of trend mechanisms

The history of life is punctuated by a number of major transitions in hierarchy, defined here as the degree of nestedness of lower-level individuals within higher-level ones: the combination of single-celled prokaryotic cells to form the first eukaryotic cell, the aggregation of single eukaryotic cells to form complex multicellular organisms, and finally, the association of multicellular organisms to form complex colonial individuals. These transitions together constitute one of the most salient and certain trends in the history of life, in particular, a trend in maximum hierarchical structure, which can be understood as a trend in complexity. This trend could be produced by a biased mechanism, in which increases in hierarchy are more likely than decreases, or by an unbiased one, in which increases and decreases are about equally likely. At stake is whether or not natural selection or some other force acts powerfully over the history of life to drive complexity upward.Too few major transitions are known to permit rigorous statistical discrimination of trend mechanisms based on these transitions alone. However, the mechanism can be investigated by using “minor transitions” in hierarchy, or, in other words, changes in the degree of individuation of the upper level. This study tests the null hypothesis that the probability (or rate) of increase and decrease in individuation are equal in a phylogenetic context. We found published phylogenetic trees for clades spanning minor transitions across the tree of life and identified changes in character states associated with those minor transitions. We then used both parsimony- and maximum-likelihood-based methods to test for asymmetrical rates of character evolution. Most analyses failed to reject equal rates of hierarchical increase and decrease. In fact, a bias toward decreasing complexity was observed for several clades. These results suggest that no strong tendency exists for hierarchical complexity to increase.

Training of a leaning agent for Navigation-inspired by brain-Machine interface

The design clue for the remote control of a mobile robot is inspired by the Talwar's brain-machine interface technology for remotely training and controlling rats. Our biologically inspired autonomous robot control consciousness-based architecture (CBA) is used for the remote control of a robot as a substitute for a rat. CBA is a developmental hierarchy model of the relationship between consciousness and behavior, including a training algorithm. This training algorithm computes a shortcut path to a goal using a cognitive map created based on behavior obstructions during a single successful trial. However, failures in reaching the goal due to errors of the vision and dead reckoning sensors require human intervention to improve autonomous navigation. A human operator remotely intervenes in autonomous behaviors in two ways: low-level intervention in reflexive actions and high-level ones in the cognitive map. Experiments are conducted to test CBA functions for intervention with a joystick for a Khepera robot navigating from the center of a square obstacle with an open side toward a goal. Their statistical results show that both human interventions, especially high-level ones, are effective in drastically improving the success rate of autonomous detours.

A DEcision Support Indices Set (DE.S.I.S): a primary quantitative evaluation tool for road network sustainability

The main purpose of this research is to build an indices set, which can be embodied within a Decision Support System for road network infrastructure evaluation. Developing the urban transportation networks, it is obvious that the thorough study of the regional transportation networks is essential. What we plan for the urban areas infrastructure should be interrelated with the regional areas infrastructure in order to work in tandem. This indices set (DEcision Support Indices Set - DE.S.I.S.) is based on a certain database, and will adjust according to the data contained within this database. Should someone want to apply the DE.S.I.S. on a different database, the only thing he has to do is to re-calculate the set. The DE.S.I.S. will quantify, classify and compare the spatial demand for road networks and the spatial offer of the road network, considering mainly the population distribution within the administrative units (in this particular case, the regions). From that comparison, an evaluation of the road network will take place. GIS tools are remarkably useful for this purpose. The study area for the DE.S.I.S application is defined as the continental part of Greece. Concerning all the road network categories that exist, only the high-level ones are examined. For the covering abstract see ITRD E129315.

階層型学習機構における状態行動空間の構成

This paper proposes a multi-layered reinforcement learning system that integrates lower learning modules and generates one of higher purposive behaviors based on which an autonomous robot learns from lower level behaviors to higher level ones through its life time. We decompose a large state space at the bottom level into several subspaces and merge those subspaces at the higher level. This allows the system to reuse the policies already learned and to learn the policy against the new features. As a result, curse of dimension is avoided. To show its validity, we apply the proposed method to a simple soccer situation in the context of RoboCup, and show the experimental results.

Alterations of basilar membrane response phase and velocity after acoustic overstimulation

To investigate the physiology of noise-induced hearing loss, the sound-induced vibrations of the basilar membrane (BM) of the inner ear were measured in living anesthetized guinea pigs before and after intense sound exposure. The vibrations were measured using a laser Doppler velocimeter after placing reflective glass beads on the BM. Pseudo-random noise waveforms containing frequencies between 4 and 24 kHz were used to generate velocity tuning curves. Before overstimulation, sharp response peaks were seen at stimulus frequencies between 15 and 17 kHz, consistent with the expected best frequency of the recording location. The response to low level stimuli lagged the high level ones by up to 90° at the characteristic frequency. Following exposure to loud sound, the BM vibrations showed a pronounced reduction in amplitude, primarily at low stimulus levels, and the best frequency moved to approximately 12 kHz. At higher levels, the reduction was either absent or much smaller. In addition to the amplitude changes, increased phase lags were seen at frequencies near the characteristic frequency. In animals with more severe exposures, response phases were altered also at frequencies showing no change of the amplitude. The phase was independent of stimulus level after severe exposures.

Responses of xylem cavitation, freezing injury and shoot dieback to a simulated winter thaw in yellow birch seedlings growing in different nursery culture regimes

Seedlings of yellow birch originating from the same seed source were treated with two levels of fertilizers during two growing seasons. The lower level of fertilizers, such as 50 (11:41:08 N:P:K ratio), 100 (20:08:20) and 35 ppm of nitrogen (08:20:30) were applied as the starter, grower and finisher, respectively. The higher level ones consisted of 75, 150, and 100 ppm of nitrogen in the same fertilizers. After 2 years growth, seedlings treated with the higher level of fertilizers, had fewer lateral branches, greater height and larger stem diameter. After natural hardening from November to February, seedlings were subjected to 0, 5, 10, 19 and 27 days of a simulated winter thaw followed by 10 weeks at −10°C. After the thaw-refreeze treatments, series of measurements were carried out. Stem xylem cavitation and root freezing injury significantly increased with thaw duration regardless of levels of fertilizer treatments. Stem freezing injury also significantly increased with thaw duration in all stem segments of seedlings treated with the higher level of fertilizers, but only in the top segments for the seedlings provided with the lower level of fertilizers. However, seedlings treated with the higher level of fertilizers developed cavitation more quickly. After 1 month of growth in the greenhouse following the thaw and freeze treatment, both types of seedlings showed significant decrease in the length of new shoot growth and increase in percent length of shoot dieback with thaw duration. The length of new shoots, however, was always greater for the plants treated with the higher level of fertilizers. No difference of shoot dieback between the seedlings of the two different nursery treatments were observed. Correlation analyses showed that the length of new shoots was highly related to root and stem freezing injury, while dieback was best correlated with root freezing injury and stem xylem cavitation regardless of the levels of fertilizer treatments. It was concluded that (1) the higher level of fertilizer applied during the culture of yellow birch seedlings can accelerate xylem cavitation and dehardening in the stem following freeze–thaw events; (2) stem xylem cavitation was unlikely the cause of stem freezing injury; and (3) root freezing injury and stem xylem cavitation are the most reliable measurements for predicting dieback of potential planting stock, but both root and shoot freezing injury are relate well to regrowth of new shoots in stock exposed to prolonged thaw.

Extrapolating a hierarchy of building block systems towards future neural network organisms.

Is it possible to predict future life forms? In this paper it is argued that the answer to this question may well be positive. As a basis for predictions a rationale is used that is derived from historical data, e.g. from a hierarchical classification that ranks all building block systems, that have evolved so far. This classification is based on specific emergent properties that allow stepwise transitions, from low level building blocks to higher level ones. This paper shows how this hierarchy can be used for predicting future life forms. The extrapolations suggest several future neural network organisms. Major aspects of the structures of these organisms are predicted. The results can be considered of fundamental importance for several reasons. Firstly, assuming that the operator hierarchy is a proper basis for predictions, the result yields insight into the structure of future organisms. Secondly, the predictions are not extrapolations of presently observed trends, but are fully integrated with all historical system transitions in evolution. Thirdly, the extrapolations suggest the structures of intelligences that, one day, will possess more powerful brains than human beings. This study ends with a discussion of possibilities for falsification of the present theory, the implications of the present predictions in relation to recent developments in artificial intelligence and the philosophical implications of the role of humanity in evolution with regard to the creation of future neural network organisms.

Conformational origin of glassy-state relaxation and ductility in aromatic polycarbonates

A new two-state conformational transition is proposed to explain the large, low-temperature mechanical loss peak seen in glassy polycarbonates. Restricted Hartree Fock ab initio calculations at the 6–31G∗∗ level for diphenyl carbonate (DPC), a key model compound of bisphenol-A polycarbonate, reveal two inequivalent trans-trans carbonate-ring conformations both of which will exist in solution, melt or glassy states. These calculations appear to be the first high level ones (with full geometry optimization) reported for DPC, and the findings are consistent with earlier ab initio results for phenyl formate and other smaller model compounds and also with single-crystal X-ray data for DPC and oligomers. In addition to a trans-trans conformer of DPC with both phenyl rings on the same side of the carbonate unit (called the ‘syn’ conformer) which is seen in the crystalline state of DPC, an ‘anti’ conformer of lower energy is found, which has its two phenyl rings located on opposite sides of the plane of the carbonate unit. Analysis of these calculated ground state geometries and energies as well as experimental single crystal X-ray results indicates that the ‘anti’ conformer has the lowest energy in the gas phase and solution, while the ‘syn’ conformation is stabilized relative to the ‘anti’ in the bulk, probably because of aromatic ring interactions between neighbour chain segments. In the glassy state of either DPC or polycarbonate, one expects a nearly random mixture of ‘syn/anti’ conformers, and the prominent low-temperature mechanical loss peak observed in many polycarbonates is consistent with a molecular level two-state process consisting of ‘syn/ anti’ carbonate conformer conversions. These conformational transitions must involve rotation and translation of both the carbonate units and, most importantly, the neighbouring phenyl groups. The possible influence of these conformational changes and the accompanying correlated molecular motions on polymer ductility and ageing is briefly discussed.

Textbook Test File Multiple-Choice Questions can Measure (A) Knowledge, (B) Intellectual Ability, (C) Neither, (D) Both

Textbook test file multiple-choice questions have come to play a substantial role in management education, particularly in the large undergraduate introductory course. Most of the questions test the recall of knowledge rather than the exercise of intellectual skills and abilities; many are not accurately classified as to "cognitive type." Instructors can learn to classify questions correctly and to determine if ones now used serve their objectives. They can change old ones, create new higher-level ones, and involve students in the process. Instructors can convey their requirements for test file standards to textbook publishers.

Languages and tools for the graphical and textual system independent programming of programmable logic controllers

Presently, only vendor specific low-level textual and graphical languages are available for the programming of programmable logic controllers (PLC). In order to improve this situation, the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) is undertaking a standardisation effort defining four compatible languages, which may be transformed into one another. Two of them are textual and the other two are graphical. First, in this paper, we shall shortly introduce these languages with special emphasis on the two high-level ones, represented by a Pascal-like structured textual and a graphical block diagram language. The latter is mainly suitable to express software modularisation, tasking, and control sequences in a form similar to Petri-nets. Then, a number of CAE tools will be described supporting the realisation of PLC application projects. They are based on the IEC standard's two high-level languages and provide an environment for graphical and textual programming, module library administration, documentation, and application program generation. In order to provide maximum system independence and expressive power, the generated output is always in the form of source code of the structured textual language.

Search for Abstracted Information

ED INFORMATION 269 number of categories in the memory set, and (c) the typicality of the test probe. In scanning experiments, latency has been shown to increase with an increase in both the number and size of categories in the memory set (Homa, 1973; Naus, 1974); in semantic verification tasks, verification of statements is faster for typical (a robin is a bird) than for atypical (a raven is a bird) subordinates. In experiments on category abstraction, the degree of abstraction is enhanced as the size of the category (Homa et al., 1973) and the number of categories are increased (Homa & Chambliss, 1975). Furthermore, low-distortion patterns are classified more accurately than highlevel ones are classified (Homa, 1978), and low-distortion patterns are situated more centrally in a multidimensional space (Homa, Reed, & Curtis, Note 1). Thus, degree of distortion shares some similarity to the notion of typicality in semantic verification tasks. In the present study, the retrievability of abstracted information was investigated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, subjects initially acquired information about a number of different categories. On subsequent days, subsets from this population were selected to define memory sets composed of varying numbers of categories (N = 1, 2, 3) and category sizes (s = 1, 2, 3) in a manner analogous to high-speed scanning experiments for semantically categorized memory sets (Homa, 1973). Test probes included both positive and negative stimuli; negative stimuli were either familiar and categorically known stimuli (related negatives) or categorically inappropriate stimuli (unrelated negatives). A major concern was whether the abstracted categories, acquired during an earlier learning phase, would function to effectively short-circuit the search in a manner obtained for semantic categories (Homa, 1973). If so, then both the number of abstracted categories as well as their size should influence the latency function. In Experiment 2, the emphasis was shifted to the comparison process presumably involved in verification. Two manipulations were used to assess the comparison process: (a) the degree of prior category abstraction, and (b) the degree of distortion (typicality) of the test probe. Unlike Experiment 1, all test probes in Experiment 2 were novel, and the latencies reflected more a comparison process than a scan for specific memorial information. To the extent that category abstraction enhances the comparison process, it was predicted that manipulating category abstraction by increasing category size during acquisition would produce RT-functions of negative slope, i.e., the greater the category size, the smaller the latency. This content downloaded from 207.46.13.105 on Wed, 25 May 2016 06:31:59 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 270 OMOHUNDRO AND HOMA

Can programming be liberated from the von Neumann style?

Conventional programming languages are growing ever more enormous, but not stronger. Inherent defects at the most basic level cause them to be both fat and weak: their primitive word-at-a-time style of programming inherited from their common ancestor—the von Neumann computer, their close coupling of semantics to state transitions, their division of programming into a world of expressions and a world of statements, their inability to effectively use powerful combining forms for building new programs from existing ones, and their lack of useful mathematical properties for reasoning about programs. An alternative functional style of programming is founded on the use of combining forms for creating programs. Functional programs deal with structured data, are often nonrepetitive and nonrecursive, are hierarchically constructed, do not name their arguments, and do not require the complex machinery of procedure declarations to become generally applicable. Combining forms can use high level programs to build still higher level ones in a style not possible in conventional languages. Associated with the functional style of programming is an algebra of programs whose variables range over programs and whose operations are combining forms. This algebra can be used to transform programs and to solve equations whose “unknowns” are programs in much the same way one transforms equations in high school algebra. These transformations are given by algebraic laws and are carried out in the same language in which programs are written. Combining forms are chosen not only for their programming power but also for the power of their associated algebraic laws. General theorems of the algebra give the detailed behavior and termination conditions for large classes of programs. A new class of computing systems uses the functional programming style both in its programming language and in its state transition rules. Unlike von Neumann languages, these systems have semantics loosely coupled to states—only one state transition occurs per major computation.

A Note on the Effect of the Fertilizers on the Population Dencity of the Tea Red Spider Mite, Tetranychus Kanzawai KISHIDA, on the Tea Plant

The tea red spider mite, Tetranychus kanzawai KISHIDA, is the most common pest of the tea plant in Japan. This paper deals with the effect of the fertilizers on the population dencity of the mite. The results were as follows :1. On the sand culture and pot experiment tests, it was found that the kinds and quantities of the fertilizers influenced on the mite population.2. The mite population on the tea plants of high nitrogen and phosphorus manuring was much more than that of the low level plots.3. On the contrary, the mite population on the low levels of potassium and manganese manuring was much more than on the high level ones.