Higher L2 Proficiency Research Articles

The nature of first and second language processing: The role of cognitive control and L2 proficiency during text-level comprehension

Text comprehension relies on high-level cognitive processes as it is the ability to revise an erroneous inference. Recent models of language processing hold that native language processing is proactive in nature (highly predictive), whereas processing seems to be weaker in the second language. However, if a prediction fails because unexpected information is encountered, reactive processing is needed to revise previous information. Twenty-four highly proficient late bilinguals were presented with narratives in L1-English and L2-Spanish. Each text demanded the revision of an initial predictive inference. Reading times and N400 amplitude suggested inferential revision is less efficient in the L2 compared to the L1. Importantly, these effects were modulated by individual differences in cognitive control and L2 proficiency. More efficient L1 comprehension was related to a balance between proactive and reactive control and lower L2 proficiency, whereas more native-like L2 comprehension was associated with a strong proactive control and higher L2 proficiency.

Processing backward translation at intermediate L2 proficiency

Abstract This study opens a window into the mapping of the lexical structure of bilinguals as they reach intermediate-level L2 proficiency. A group of 32 Persian-speaking English learners participated in a translation recognition task, where they had to decide whether the sequentially presented English-Persian word pairs were translation equivalents. The Persian words in the experimental trials were not translation equivalents, but they either shared lexical or semantic features with the correct translations or shared phonological features with the preceding English words. For example, the Persian word /bɒːzuː/ in the word pair arm – /bɒːzuː/ was manipulated to create three categories of ‘no’ trials: (a) orthographically related to the translation equivalent (arm – /bɒːziː/ ‘game’), (b) semantically related to the translation equivalent (arm – /ʃɒːne/ ‘shoulder’), (c) phonologically related to the English word (arm – /ɒːrmɒːn/ ‘goal’). A significant interference effect was observed in response to the items in the first two categories, which indicates extensive utilization of both lexical and conceptual links in backward translation. However, the observed interference effect in the third category did not reach statistical significance, which calls into question the integrated activation of L1 and L2 prior to high level L2 proficiency. These results are discussed within the context of the Revised Hierarchical Model (Kroll & Stewart, 1994) and the Bilingual Interactive Activation Plus model (Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 2002).

On the predictive validity of various corpus-based frequency norms in L2 English lexical processing

The predictive validity of various corpus-based frequency norms in first-language lexical processing has been intensively investigated in previous research, but less attention has been paid to this issue in second-language (L2) processing. To bridge the gap, in the present study we took English as a case in point and compared the predictive power of a large set of corpus-based frequency norms for the performance of an L2 English visual lexical decision task (LDT). Our results showed that, in general, the frequency norms from SUBTLEX-US and WorldLex-Blog tended to predict L2 performance better in reaction times, whereas the frequency norms from corpora with a mixture of written and spoken genres (CELEX, WorldLex-Blog, BNC, ANC, and COCA) tended to predict L2 accuracy better. Although replicated in both low- and high-proficiency L2 English learners, these patterns were not exactly the same as those found in LDT data from native English speakers. In addition, we only observed some limited advantages of the lemma frequency and contextual diversity measures over the wordform frequency measure in predicting L2 lexical processing. The results of the present study, especially the detailed comparisons among the different corpora, provide methodological implications for future L2 lexical research.

Communication in military environments: Influence of noise, hearing protection and language proficiency

Military training and international operations require different nationalities to communicate in a common language, where there are potential challenges with non-native (L2) speech communication. An experiment of speech communication in military noise was conducted for co-located (face-to-face [F2F]) and distributed (using communication headsets) talker-listener pairs. Half of the twenty-four participants were monolingual English speakers (native group, NA) and the remaining half had obtained English fluency after the age of eight years (non-native group, NN). Two tests of speech understanding were used: the Modified Rhyme Test (MRT) and the Speech Perception in Noise test (SPIN). In the F2F condition, the participants wore a communication headset (earmuff) with the power off for occluded listening. Three levels of armoured vehicle noise were used, 55, 60 and 65dBA, for speech-to-noise ratios ranging from −10 to +5dB. In the radio condition, the pairs were separated by a visual barrier and used the communication headset for the tests in 80dBA armoured vehicle noise. The results showed that the NN group had difficulty with the SPIN test in the radio and F2F conditions. This result was attributed to the open-response set of the SPIN. Headset occlusion likely contributed to the lower scores for the NN listeners in the F2F condition. There was a main effect of talker for the MRT in the F2F and radio conditions, and for the SPIN in the radio condition, suggesting that foreign accent reduced the intelligibility for both the NA and NN groups. The results were surprising considering the high L2 proficiency of the NN group. Training methods for improving L2 communication in operational settings should be further investigated.

Shaving Bridges and Tuning Kitaraa: The Effect of Language Switching on Semantic Processing.

Language switching has been repeatedly found to be costly. Yet, there are reasons to believe that switches in language might benefit language comprehension in some groups of people, such as less proficient language learners. This study therefore investigated the interplay between language switching and semantic processing in groups with varying language proficiency. EEG was recorded while L2 learners of English with intermediate and high proficiency levels read semantically congruent or incongruent sentences in L2. Translations of congruent and incongruent target words were additionally presented in L1 to create intrasentential language switches. A control group of English native speakers was tested in order to compare responses to non-switched stimuli with those of L2 learners. An omnibus ANOVA including all groups revealed larger N400 responses for non-switched incongruent stimuli compared to congruent stimuli. Additionally, despite switches to L1 at target word position, semantic N400 responses were still elicited in both L2 learner groups. Further switching effects were reflected by an N400-like effect and a late positivity complex, pointing to possible parsing efforts after language switches. Our results therefore show that although language switches are associated with increased mental effort, switches may not necessarily be costly on the semantic level. This finding contributes to the ongoing discussion on language inhibition processes, and shows that, in these intermediate and high proficient L2 learners, semantic processes look similar to those of native speakers of English.

The Pre-attentive L2 Orthographic Perception Mechanism Utilized by Bilinguals with Different Proficiency Levels.

Language proficiency is predicted to modulate orthographic-semantic association in second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition, in accordance with the assumptions of the Developmental Bilingual Interactive-Activation model (BIA-d) (Grainger et al., 2010). The current study explored this modulation during pre-attentive L2 orthographic perception. ERPs were recorded from Chinese–English bilinguals with different L2 proficiency during their pre-attentive response to deviant and standard stimuli arranged in the oddball paradigm. Two stimulus types were investigated separately: L2 orthography and L1 orthography. In the L2 orthography condition, a MMN-N400 complex (i.e., deviancy effect) was found in the high L2 proficiency bilinguals, but only a marginally significant reduced negativity in an early time window was found in the low L2 proficiency bilinguals. In the L1 orthography condition, the high and low L2 proficiency bilinguals showed similar deviancy effect in the form of MMN-P3a-LPC complex. The current findings suggest that proficiency modulates pre-attentive L2 orthographic perception, such that the high L2 proficiency bilinguals activate the associated semantic representation instantly upon orthographic decoding, while the orthographic-semantic connection is not activated for the low L2 proficiency bilinguals. This is probably due to their difference in the strength of orthographic-semantic association. These findings contribute to the understanding of orthographic processing by bilinguals at the pre-attentive level and provide supporting evidence for the BIA-d model.

Exploring the nature of phonological weakness in low-proficiency second language learners

Low-proficiency second language (L2) learners have a weakness in native language (L1) phonological processing. The hypothesis that this weakness stems from deficient phonological access was tested using a tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) experimental paradigm with implicit phonological priming. Phonological priming may facilitate the accessibility of phonological representations, thus temporarily cancelling out the deficiency and increasing the resolution of TOT naming failures. Twenty low-proficiency and 22 high-proficiency L2 learners were asked to name objects in their L1. They could correctly name the target, do not know the target word, or report being in a TOT state. On some of the latter trials, they were primed with a pseudoword phonologically related to the target. Phonological priming increased TOT states resolution in high-proficiency but not low-proficiency learners. No priming effects were observed when participants did not know the target word. Thus, our results do not provide evidence linking low L2 proficiency with deficient phonological access.

Moral judgement and foreign language effect: when the foreign language becomes the second language

ABSTRACTWhile making a decision facing a moral conflict, does your answer vary depending on whether you use your first language or later learned second language? A previous study conducted by Costa, Albert, Alice Foucart, Sayuri Hayakawa, Melina Aparici, Jose Apesteguia, Joy Heafner, Boaz Keysar, and Mariano Sigman [2014. “Your Morals Depend on Language.” PloS One 9 (4): e94842. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094842] has shown that judging moral dilemmas in a foreign language induces utilitarian consistent responses, due to the increased cognitive and emotional distance of that language. In the current study, it is assumed that foreign-language effect might be eliminated when a foreign language becomes a second language. That is, a higher proficiency in L2 and a higher degree of acculturation into L2 culture may reduce utilitarianism in the L2 condition. To test these assumptions a study was conducted with 60 Croatian/German successive bilinguals. The findings show that there was no effect of language native-ness. Participants responded in the same way in both language conditions. The lack of a decision-making difference between the two languages might be related to the high L2 proficiency, frequent use of both languages and high degree of immersion in both cultures. However, it is also possible that other influential factors in moral judgment, such as general embracement of moral rules, thinking style and working memory influence moral decision-making.

Diferentes maneiras de observar eventos: o aprendizado de língua estrangeira e a aquisição de padrões de perspectivação conceitual de ações na L2

Given the growing body of evidence on the interaction between language and thought, the overall aim of the current study is to verify whether there is a developmental pattern in the cognitive behavior of Persian L2 learners of English as a foreign language with regard to action construal level. Specifically, this study investigates whether acquiring English as a foreign language would affect the construal level of Persian EFL learners with different levels of bilingualism. A group of 40 Persian monolinguals, a group of 40 low-level Persian EFL bilinguals (bilinguals with low L2 proficiency), and a group of 40 high-level Persian EFL bilinguals (bilinguals with high L2 proficiency) were recruited. Participants were divided into the above groups based on their performance on Oxford Quick Placement Test (QPT). The participants’ action construal level was measured using Behavior Identification Form (BIF) (Vallacher and Wegner, 1989). The results of a one way ANOVA and a post-hoc Tukey test indicated that while low-level participants behaved relatively similar to Persian monolinguals, the construal of high-level learners was significantly different from monolinguals and low-level bilinguals. These findings provide evidence of a developmental pattern regarding the acquisition of construal level, supporting the claim of previous research that learning an additional language can affect the construal of language learners. Keywords: language acquisition, foreign language, construal, action construal, construal level.

Can higher-proficiency L2 learners benefit from working with lower-proficiency partners in peer feedback?

ABSTRACTInformed by Vygotsky’s conceptualization of the Zone of Proximal Development, this case study investigated the benefits of peer feedback on second language (L2) writing for students with high L2 proficiency and the factors that may influence their learning in peer feedback in the Chinese English-as-a-foreign-language context. Specifically, the study examined whether, what, and how higher-proficiency (HP) English learners can learn when they collaborate with their lower-proficiency counterparts. Analyses of multiple sources of data – video-recordings of peer feedback sessions, interviews, stimulated recalls, and drafts of student texts – revealed that while group peer feedback in the writing classroom can provide learning opportunities for HP students, their learning can be influenced by several factors, including their beliefs about peer feedback, motives and goals for peer feedback, and medium of group discussion. Implications are drawn from these findings for peer feedback practice and research in L2 writing.

A neurocognitive perspective on retrieval interference in L2 sentence processing

Cunnings (Cunnings) offers an interpretation of L2-L1 sentence processing differences in terms of memory principles. We applaud such cross-domain approaches, which seem likely to significantly elucidate the neurocognition of language. Cunnings attributes sentence processing differences between (adult) high proficiency L2 and L1 speakers to an increased susceptibility to similarity-based retrieval interference, rather than to qualitative L2-L1 processing differences (cf. Clahsen & Felser, 2006). On his account, both L1 and L2 sentence processing depend upon a ‘bipartite’ working memory, which involves maintaining items active by focusing attention on long-term memory representations (Cowan, 2001).

Student's Second-Language Grade May Depend on Classroom Listening Position.

The purpose of this experiment was to explore whether listening positions (close or distant location from the sound source) in the classroom, and classroom reverberation, influence students’ score on a test for second-language (L2) listening comprehension (i.e., comprehension of English in Swedish speaking participants). The listening comprehension test administered was part of a standardized national test of English used in the Swedish school system. A total of 125 high school pupils, 15 years old, participated. Listening position was manipulated within subjects, classroom reverberation between subjects. The results showed that L2 listening comprehension decreased as distance from the sound source increased. The effect of reverberation was qualified by the participants’ baseline L2 proficiency. A shorter reverberation was beneficial to participants with high L2 proficiency, while the opposite pattern was found among the participants with low L2 proficiency. The results indicate that listening comprehension scores—and hence students’ grade in English—may depend on students’ classroom listening position.

Effects of contrastive accents in memory for L2 discourse

Contrastive pitch accents benefit native English speakers’ memory for discourse by enhancing a representation of a specific relevant contrast item (Fraundorf et al., 2010). This study examines whether and how second language (L2) listeners differ in how contrastive accents affect their encoding and representation of a discourse, as compared to native speakers. Using the same materials as Fraundorf et al. (2010), we found that low and mid proficiency L2 learners showed no memory benefit from contrastive accents. High proficiency L2 learners revealed some sensitivity to contrastive accents, but failed to fully integrate information conveyed by contrastive accents into their discourse representation. The results suggest that L2 listeners’ non-native performance in processing contrastive accents, observed in this and other prior studies, may be attributed at least in part to a difference in the depth of processing of the information conveyed by contrastive accents.

The effects of language immersion on the bilingual lexicon

Abstract Previous studies have consistently found an asymmetry where priming in the L1-L2 direction is stronger than that in the L2-L1 direction. However, some studies showed that an L2 immersion environment could attenuate bilingual speakers’ access to the L1 and result in a ‘bilingual disadvantage’. This study investigated how language immersion modulates the priming effects of late adult bilingual speakers. We compared late Chinese-English bilingual speakers with high L2 (English) proficiency in an L1 environment and those in an L2 immersion environment. Both semantic and translation priming in same-language and cross-language conditions were investigated. The results showed no ‘bilingual disadvantage’ of the immersed participants. The priming asymmetry was weakened for the immersed participants who were more comparable in their reaction time to different language conditions. Both semantic and translation priming were found in L1-L2 and L2-L1 directions, suggesting that both types of priming are similar in nature in the bilingual lexicon.

What to do if we have nothing to rely on: Late bilinguals process L2 grammatical features like L1 natives

Abstract It is predicted that bilinguals rely on their first language (L1) to process the second language (L2). However, it remains largely unknown as to how the brain processes unique grammatical features of L2. To answer this question, we explored how Chinese-English bilinguals recognized English inflected verbs that are lacking in Chinese. By using a semantic consistency judgment task, we found that highly proficient late bilinguals processed dichotomic regular and irregular inflections the way English monolinguals did. Behaviorally, regular past tense verbs significantly primed recognition of verb stems, but irregulars did not enhance recognition of their simple forms. Brain imaging results showed that, in contrast to irregulars, late bilinguals additionally employed the procedural memory system of the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), superior temporal gyrus (STG), middle temporal gyrus (MTG), supramarginal gyrus (SMG), cerebellum, and basal ganglia (BG) to process regulars. Such a differential brain activity pattern elicited by L2 syntax and semantics was distinctive from the way Chinese-English bilinguals processed their L1 syntax and semantics, which supported Ullman's declarative/procedural model. Native-like brain activity elicited by L2 grammatical features suggested that unique language features were processed through specialized neural substrates by late bilinguals either. Meanwhile, we also found that late bilingual learners with a high L2 proficiency still employed the cognitive control system (the BA47 and dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex, DLPFC) more heavily to process L2 syntax than L2 semantics. It supported the sensorimotor/emergentist (S/E) model which emphasized that cognitive control must be involved in L2 processing, and ran contrary to the fade-away prediction of the cognitive control process of the Convergent Hypothesis.

Spoken Language Activation Alters Subsequent Sign Language Activation in L2 Learners of American Sign Language.

A large body of literature has characterized unimodal monolingual and bilingual lexicons and how neighborhood density affects lexical access; however there have been relatively fewer studies that generalize these findings to bimodal (M2) second language (L2) learners of sign languages. The goal of the current study was to investigate parallel language activation in M2L2 learners of sign language and to characterize the influence of spoken language and sign language neighborhood density on the activation of ASL signs. A priming paradigm was used in which the neighbors of the sign target were activated with a spoken English word and compared the activation of the targets in sparse and dense neighborhoods. Neighborhood density effects in auditory primed lexical decision task were then compared to previous reports of native deaf signers who were only processing sign language. Results indicated reversed neighborhood density effects in M2L2 learners relative to those in deaf signers such that there were inhibitory effects of handshape density and facilitatory effects of location density. Additionally, increased inhibition for signs in dense handshape neighborhoods was greater for high proficiency L2 learners. These findings support recent models of the hearing bimodal bilingual lexicon, which posit lateral links between spoken language and sign language lexical representations.

Reading EAP: Investigating high proficiency L2 university students' strategy use through reading blogs

This study investigates the reading strategies used by academically novice, but high proficiency L2 students of English enrolled in a teacher education programme at a major Swedish university. Data were obtained from personal reading blogs kept by the students as they undertook course reading at home. An analysis revealed that students employed various reading strategies; however, there was limited evidence to suggest that students employed these strategies routinely. The most common strategy reported was connecting to short-term writing task. While students reported reflecting on their reading, they did not appear to amend unsuccessful strategy use, or re-use successful strategies. The study reveals the difficulties and limitations of high proficiency L2 students who lack experience of reading academic literature in English, and discusses pedagogical implications for reading blogs.

The effects of English (L2) language proficiency on speech motor indices for bisyllabic bilabial word utterances in typical Kannada (L1)–English (L2) bilinguals

Objectives: The study examined the influence of second language proficiency on intra-articulatory and inter-articulatory speech motor variability measures for bilabial bisyllabic words in typical Kannada (L1)-English (L2) bilinguals.Methods: Sixteen typical Kannada English bilingual adults were categorized into high and low L2 proficiency groups (n=8 each) participated in a task of repeating a bilabial bisyllabic word pair matched for syllable structure, syllable length and duration. To understand the intra-articulatory and inter-articulatory stability, Spatiotemporal Index (STI) of Lower Lip (LL) and Lip Aperture Variability (LAVAR) measures were computed respectively. A mixed language paradigm was used where the word pairs of L1 and L2 were randomly mixed and presented to the participants.Results: Analysis of STI of LL revealed comparable movement stability across languages and the influence of L2 language proficiency was found to be insignificant. However, LAVAR revealed language specific differences wherein L1 was more variable than L2. Further, LAVAR was found to be independent of L2 language proficiency, possibly suggesting a language invariant speech motor plan operating at the intra-articulatory level but a language sensitive speech motor plan functioning at the inter-articulatory stability measure in a word context.Conclusion: The findings did not support the influence of L2 language proficiency on STI and LAVAR measures in a word context. The study concluded with a possible scope of utilizing mixed language paradigm in speech motor control studies addressing speech motor stability in bilinguals.

Minority language ownership and authority: perspectives of native speakers and new speakers

ABSTRACTThe Irish language is a minority language undergoing the attenuation and accelerated change commonly seen as threatened languages come under increasing pressure from the dominant language. The decline of the numbers of traditional speakers and growing numbers of L2 speakers of Irish has given rise to some contested spaces regarding authenticity, accuracy and ownership of the language, as well as who has the right to produce and distribute the resources associated with/generated by the language. This study explored the attitudes and experiences of native and high-proficiency L2 speakers (‘new speakers’) of Irish with respect to these issues. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 Irish speakers, 7 young adult native speakers (four female, aged 18–26 years) and 10 young adult high-proficiency new speakers (six female, aged 19–31). Thematic Analysis showed a significant decline, in the view of both groups, in the confidence and authority of native speakers of Irish, and a change to a view among both groups that goodwill and commitment to the language's maintenance is more important than linguistic accuracy. The commonalities and differences between the native speaker and new speaker groups are explored, and the implications for the future of Irish are considered.

First language attrition without second language acquisition

We investigate whether Russian immigrants in Israel with little or no knowledge of Hebrew (L2) experience attrition of Russian (L1). We compared immigrants with no knowledge of Hebrew (−Hebrew), immigrants who knew Hebrew (+Hebrew), and monolingual controls on correctness judgment of collocations and of complex grammatical constructions. On collocations, the −Hebrew immigrants performed similarly to the +Hebrew immigrants. On grammatical constructions, they performed worse. Results of grammatical constructions correlated positively with Hebrew proficiency and usage. We conclude that immigrants with no L2 knowledge can experience just as much, or even more, attrition of L1 as immigrants with L2 knowledge. Moreover, higher L2 proficiency may positively affect L1 maintenance.