High Expectations Research Articles

Applications of machine‐learning interatomic potentials for modeling ceramics, glass, and electrolytes: A review

AbstractThe emergence of artificial intelligence has provided efficient methodologies to pursue innovative findings in material science. Over the past two decades, machine‐learning potential (MLP) has emerged as an alternative technology to density functional theory (DFT) and classical molecular dynamics (CMD) simulations for computational modeling of materials and estimation of their properties. The MLP offers more efficient computation compared to DFT, while providing higher accuracy compared to CMD. This enables us to conduct more realistic simulations using models with more atoms and for longer simulation times. Indeed, the number of research studies utilizing MLPs has significantly increased since 2015, covering a broad range of materials and their structures, ranging from simple to complex, as well as various chemical and physical phenomena. As a result, there are high expectations for further applications of MLPs in the field of material science and industrial development. This review aims to summarize the applications, particularly in ceramics and glass science, and fundamental theories of MLPs to facilitate future progress and utilization. Finally, we provide a summary and discuss perspectives on the next challenges in the development and application of MLPs.

The achievement of pre-operative expectations in patients undergoing knee arthroplasty: a cohort study evaluating unique patient goals

BackgroundTotal knee arthroplasty (TKA) is a common procedure employed to treat end-stage osteoarthritis. While TKA is generally believed to have acceptable outcomes, many patients report pain or functional deficits not in line with their expectation following the procedure. It has been postulated that patient’s pre-operative expectations regarding post-operative treatment outcomes play a significant role in satisfaction. It is therefore important to assess if the outcomes of surgery truly align with patient’s individual expectations. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine the degree to which patient expectations of TKA are achieved and the contribution of TKA to achieving patient goals one year after surgery.MethodsA consecutive sample of 110 patients booked for total knee arthroplasty were asked to identify their most important goals to inform the Direct Questioning of Objectives Index (DQO Index, range 0 to 1) and identify their surgical goals and grade their expectation that a knee arthroplasty would achieve each goal on an 11-point scale. One year after surgery, the DQO Index was repeated to assess their current ability to achieve each pre-operative goal, and asked to estimate the contribution of their knee arthroplasty in achieving each goal. Mean differences between baseline and one year follow-up were calculated regarding the DQO Index and expected achievement of pre-operative goals.ResultsAccording to the DQO Index at one year, patients improved from a poor quality of life pre-operatively (mean ± standard deviation: 0.20 ± 0.18) to moderately high quality of life (mean ± standard deviation: 0.71 ± 0.21) reflecting a large improvement in ability to achieve each goal. Although achievement improved, for each goal, the patient estimates of the extent to which the knee arthroplasty had contributed to achieving the goal was lower than their initial expectation provided pre-operatively (mean difference range: 0.6 to 1.9 on an 11-point scale).ConclusionPatients undergoing TKA have high expectations that their surgery will address their primary goals. Despite surgery largely achieving these goals (improved pain and function), the extent to which the goals were achieved was lower than patients had expected pre-operatively.

Examining the elements of culturally relevant pedagogy captured and missed in a measure of high-quality mathematics instruction

Mathematics instruction is not race or culture neutral. For students who have been historically marginalized in mathematics classrooms, high-quality mathematics instruction, instruction that helps students build conceptual understanding, on its own might not be enough to disrupt inequities. These students might also need instruction that is culturally relevant, with teachers who demonstrate cultural competence, build critical consciousness, and support student learning. Our goal in this study was to understand which components of culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) are captured and which are missed in a typical U.S. framework of high-quality mathematics instruction. To find the overlaps and gaps, we analyzed the mathematics lessons of three elementary teachers through both the lens of CRP and the Mathematics-Scan, a mathematics observation tool. We found the strongest overlap between the two frameworks in the patterns of strengths and weaknesses in the teachers’ lessons. When the teachers were delivering high-quality instruction, they were also often supporting students’ learning or showing cultural competence. When the teachers were delivering lower quality instruction, they were also often missing opportunities to enact CRP. At the same time, key elements of CRP including linguistic support for students, high expectations, critical consciousness, and nuances within cultural competence, were missed by the high-quality instruction framework. High-quality instruction was the foundation for CRP in the teachers’ classrooms, but CRP was more than just high-quality instruction. We conclude with recommendations for increasing the alignment between the frameworks and implications for international educators also grappling with equity in their own frameworks of mathematics instruction.

A Study on the Current Situation of English Teaching in Compulsory Education and Countermeasures

The purpose of this paper is to study the current situation and existing problems of English teaching in China's compulsory education stage, and to propose corresponding countermeasures. By analysing the current syllabus, curriculum, teaching objectives and contents, teaching methods and means, teaching evaluation and feedback, this paper finds that there are problems such as insufficient students’ interest in learning, teachers’ professional qualities and teaching abilities need to be improved, uneven distribution of educational resources, and high social and parental expectations of English education. Aiming at these problems, this paper puts forward countermeasure suggestions such as optimising curriculum and teaching content, improving teaching methods and means, improving teacher training and quality enhancement, strengthening the integration and distribution of educational resources, and adjusting social and parental expectations of education. It is hoped that the research in this paper can provide certain reference and learnings for the reform of English education in China’s compulsory education stage.

Rural generalist medicine: a developing approach to health care in rural and island Japan.

Despite universal health coverage and high life expectancy, Japan faces challenges in health care that include providing care for the world's oldest population, increasing healthcare costs, physician maldistribution and an entrenched medical workforce and training system. Primary health care has typically been practised by specialists in other fields, and general medicine has only been certified as an accredited specialty since 2018. There are continued challenges to develop an awareness and acceptance of the primary health medical workforce in Japan. The impact of these challenges is highest in rural and island areas of Japan, with nearly 50% of rural and remote populations considered 'elderly'. Concurrently, these areas are experiencing physician shortages as medical graduates gravitate to urban areas and choose medical specialties more commonly practised in cities. This study aimed to understand the views on the role of rural generalist medicine (RGM) in contributing to solutions for rural and island health care in Japan. This was a descriptive qualitative study. Data were collected via semi-structured interviews with 16 participants, including Rural Generalist Program Japan (RGPJ) registrars and supervisors, the RGPJ director, government officials, rural health experts and academics. Interviews were of 35-50 minutes duration and conducted between May and July 2019. Some interviews were conducted in person at the WONCA Asia-Pacific Conference in Kyoto, some onsite in hospital settings and some were videoconferenced. Interviews were recorded and transcribed. All transcripts were analysed through an inductive thematic process based on the grouping of codes. From the interview analysis, six main themes were identified: (1) key issues facing rural and island health in Japan; (2) participant background; (3) local demography and population; (4) identity, perception and role of RGM; (5) RGPJ experience; and (6) suggested reforms and recommendations. The RGPJ was generally considered to be a positive step toward reshaping the medical workforce to address the geographic inequities in Japan. While improvements to the program were suggested by participants, it was also generally agreed that a more systematic, national approach to RGM was needed in Japan. Key findings from this study are relevant to this goal. This includes considering the drivers to participating in the RGPJ for future recruitment strategies and the need for an idiosyncratic Japanese model of RGM, with agreed advanced skills and supervision models. Also important are the issues raised by participants on the need to improve community acceptance and branding of rural generalist doctors to support primary care in rural and island areas. The RGPJ represents an effort to bolster the national rural medical workforce in Japan. Discussions from participants in this study indicate strong support to continue research, exploration and expansion of a national RGM model that is contextualised for Japanese conditions and that is branded and promoted to build community support for the role of the rural generalist.

Transforming Challenges to Victories: An Inquiry on Transformational Leadership of School Leaders in the Public Elementary Schools

This study narrated the lived experiences of school heads in public elementary schools on transformational leadership. This employed qualitative phenomenological research. Ten transformational school leaders as participants, provided rich narratives that coalesced around three primary themes: fostering shared vision, setting high expectations and motivation, and innovative teaching practices. Alongside, coping strategies for the challenges associated with transformational leadership revealed three major themes: individualized support, collaboration and team building, and continuous professional development. Furthermore, the study identified two overarching learning insights derived from school heads' lived experiences: the need of emotional and mental well-being support. The Department of Education officials are urged to leverage the study's findings to refine its leadership programs and cultivate a leadership culture that aligns with contemporary educational needs and aspirations. Teachers, in turn, should understand the impact of transformative leadership style, be inspired with this approach, and appreciate that this could contribute to their growth, job satisfaction, and adaptability. Finally, school leaders must embrace transformational leadership approach. This approach not only fosters a positive and dynamic work culture but also contributes to improved teacher performance, student achievement, and overall educational success within the school community.

Are lateralized and bold fish optimistic or pessimistic?

Cognitive bias is defined as the influence of emotions on cognitive processes. The concept of the cognitive judgement bias has its origins in human psychology but has been applied to animals over the past 2 decades. In this study we were interested in determining if laterality and personality traits, which are known to influence learning style, might also be correlated with a cognitive bias in the three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). We used the judgement bias test with the go/no-go procedure where fish were first trained to discriminate between a black and white card and, after reaching a minimum learning criterion, tested their response to an ambiguous card (grey). Optimistic subjects were expected to have a high expectation of reward associated with an ambiguous stimulus, whereas pessimistic subjects a high expectation of non-reward. We used an emergence and a mirror test to quantify boldness and laterality, respectively. We hypothesised that male, bolder and more strongly lateralized fish would be more optimistic than female, shy and less strongly lateralised fish. We found that males and more strongly lateralized fish were more optimistic than females and less strongly lateralized fish. In addition, bold males were more optimistic than shy males as we predicted, but females showed the opposite pattern. Finally, fish trained on the black colour card learned the training task faster than those trained on a white card. Our results indicate that both laterality and personality traits are linked to animals’ internal states (pessimistic or optimistic outlooks) which likely has broad implications for understanding animal behaviour particularly in a welfare context.

A Healthy Balance: The Effects of the Interaction between Work Autonomy and Work Demands on R&D Team Members' Creative Behavior and Taking Charge

ABSTRACTIn the era of digital intelligence, how to improve the behavioral quality of R&D team members by granting work autonomy and proposing corresponding work demands is a pressing issue in the transformation of organizational management into digital intelligence. Based on the conservation of resources theory, this study investigates the effects of the interactions among work time autonomy, work method autonomy, and different types of work demands on team members' creative behavior and taking charge. By analyzing the two‐stage data of 233 paired samples of team members and leaders, the results showed that: Work time autonomy was significantly positively correlated with creative behavior and taking charge of team members, and work method autonomy was significantly positively correlated with creative behavior and taking charge of team members, while the interaction between work time autonomy and work method autonomy was significantly positively correlated with the team members' taking charge; the interactions among work time autonomy, work method autonomy and innovative job requirements positively affect team members' creative behavior and taking charge; while the interactions among work time autonomy, work method autonomy and high performance expectations negatively affect team members' taking charge. This study provides a way to realize scientific management in the period of digital intelligence transformation.

Design optimization of an assisted living facility to improve summer thermal comfort in warming climates

Assisted living facilities with optimal summer thermal comfort are necessary to ensure improved quality of life for the older individuals in warming climates. Older individuals are exposed to higher mortality risks during periods of excessive heat. This study aims to identify and optimize key design variables for a passive house certified assisted living facility in Belgium with high comfort expectations using EnergyPlus to improve indoor thermal comfort during extreme climates. The sensitivity analysis used the Standard Regression Coefficient method with Latin Hypercube Sampling for eighteen design variables under four categories: layout, envelope, operation, and system. The analysis identified flat roof and external floor insulation as the most influential parameters, whereas lighting gain and cooling setback temperature were the least influential parameters. Furthermore, optimizing the reference building with the most sensitive design variables using a genetic algorithm based on the NSGA-II method found ideal configurations that would ensure minimum thermal discomfort hours during extreme summers. The study findings provide an evidence-based approach for building engineers and designers for early-stage design of assisted living facilities that maintain optimal comfort in mixed humid climates of Europe.

Preoperative Rank of Expectations for Shoulder Surgery (PRESS): a novel survey

Patient expectations for orthopedic surgeries, and elective shoulder surgery in particular, have been shown to be important for patient outcomes and satisfaction. Current surveys assessing patient expectations lack clinical applicability and allow patients to list multiple expectations at the highest level of importance. The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate the use of a novel, rank-based survey assessing the relative importance of patient expectations for shoulder surgery. The Preoperative Rank of Expectations for Shoulder Surgery (PRESS) survey was developed by polling 100 patients regarding their expectations for surgery. The PRESS survey consisted of 8 common expectations for elective shoulder surgery by importance and a 0%-100% scale of expected pain relief and range of motion improvement. After initial development of the PRESS survey, it was administered preoperatively to 316 patients undergoing surgery for shoulder arthritis, rotator cuff tear, subacromial pain syndrome, or glenohumeral instability between August 2020 and April 2021. Patients also completed preoperative outcome measures such as the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons Standardized Shoulder Assessment Form, Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Upper Extremity Physical Function 7a version 1.0 (PROMIS PF), and PROMIS Pain Interference short form 8a version 2.0 (PROMIS PI) surveys. Patient-reported outcome measure (PROM) surveys were administered 6 months postoperatively. Improvement in range of motion was the expectation most often ranked first for the entire study group (18%), arthritis subgroup (23%), and rotator cuff tear subgroup (19%). Subacromial pain syndrome patients most often ranked improving ability to complete activities of daily living and relieving daytime pain first (19%). Shoulder instability patients most often ranked improving ability to participate in sports first (31%). Patients who ranked improving range of motion or sports highly had better PROMs. Those who ranked relieving pain highly had worse PROMs. Patients with high (>90%) expectations of pain relief had better PROMIS PI scores. Patients with high pain relief expectations in the arthritis and subacromial pain syndrome groups had better PROMs, whereas patients with instability were less satisfied. The novel PRESS survey assesses patient expectations for shoulder surgery in a new, more clinically applicable rank-based format. The responses provided by patients provide actionable information to clinicians and are related to postoperative outcomes. Therefore, the PRESS survey represents a useful tool for guiding discussions between patients and surgeons, as well as aiding in overall patient-centered clinical decision making.

Trends in Mini-Publics Research: High Expectations, Mixed Findings, and Clear-Cut Challenges

Trends in Mini-Publics Research: High Expectations, Mixed Findings, and Clear-Cut Challenges

Exploring physicians’ expectations of telehealth services implementation in primary care: An application of the social cognitive theory

ABSTRACT Background: Understanding healthcare professionals’ expectations in telehealth is crucial for successful implementation. The present study used an adaptation of the antecedents-expectations model, supported by the social cognitive theory to evaluate physicians’ expectations regarding the implementation of telehealth in primary healthcare (PHC) and to investigate the potential influence, on expectations, of a prior telehealth experience (antecedents) during the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Materials and Methods: A questionnaire-based survey was conducted online, targeting PHC physicians. Expectations covered four telehealth performance domains including public health and health promotion, Care Quality and Workflow Organization, Patient’s Convenience and Engagement and Providers’ Value and Training. Antecedents included six domains including gain in self-efficacy, gain in knowledge, gain in participation/engagement, gain in experience, enjoyment and satisfaction. Stepwise linear regression was performed to analyse the effect of antecedents on overall expectations. Results: A total of 54 physicians participated in the study. The mean expectation score was 114.15/154 (SD = 28.26), with highest expectations concerning cost-effectiveness, care timeliness and patients’ convenience. A previous experience with smart apps and dedicated telehealth platforms was associated with lower expectations scores. Expectations scores were positively correlated with antecedents scores; however, satisfaction was the sole independent factor of overall expectations (regression coefficient B = 4.40, 95%CI: 3.11–5.68). Conclusion: The findings highlight the significance of previous experience and various antecedents in shaping physicians’ expectations about telehealth. These insights can inform the development of strategies and interventions to enhance healthcare professionals’ expectations and facilitate the successful implementation of telehealth services.

Preoperative Expectations of Women Undergoing Breast Reconstruction Surgery.

The study investigated the expectations of patients undergoing immediate breast reconstruction after mastectomy, considering factors such as the cause for mastectomy (cancer versus prophylactic due BRCA1 or BRCA2 gene mutations), age, marital status, and education. The study had a cross-sectional design. Eligible patients at Oslo University Hospital received a link to the BREAST-Q Expectations questionnaire, which they filled out before surgery from 2019 to 2022. One hundred forty-six patients completed the questionnaire (79.8% response rate). The mean age was 46.6 years, and the majority (95.1%) were undergoing reconstruction with implants. Most patients (86.9%) wanted to be involved in the decision-making. The highest expectation was for breast appearance and the lowest for sensation after surgery. Patients not diagnosed with cancer (n = 27) before surgery expected significantly more pain after surgery compared with patients diagnosed with cancer (P = 0.016). Patients 40 years or younger had higher expectation of pain after surgery than patients 41 years or older, 73.2 versus 54.2, P < 0.001, respectively. After 10 years, 26.7% of the patients expected that further reconstruction procedures might be necessary. Our study's results regarding patient's expectations with breast reconstruction, as assessed using the BREAST-Q Expectations module, align with previous research in terms of overall trends. However, our study provides a more nuanced understanding by exploring variations within different patient subgroups. These differences emphasize the need for personalized preoperative counseling and support to align patient's expectations with realistic outcomes.

Life expectancy in relation to societal development level: significant discordant factors.

The aim of this study is to determine the interdependence between life expectancy and numerous social indicators, i.e., to determine the factors that encourage an increase or decrease in life expectancy. Pearson coefficients as well as linear and logarithmic trends and correlations between the dependent variable of life expectancy and numerous independent variables were calculated and analysed. The calculations were carried out for all countries in the world for which data is available. Based on the strength of the correlations between life expectancy and numerous indicators, we have tried to determine the reasons for the different values of life expectancy in the various countries. Important factors for achieving high life expectancy values are economic development and healthcare spending but the spread of "diseases of the modern era", such as obesity or diabetes, have a significant negative impact on life expectancy. Other important limiting factors for life expectancy are large income inequalities, a higher share of private healthcare expenditure in total healthcare expenditure and lower total healthcare expenditure. Less developed societies can significantly increase their life expectancy by providing clean water and safe sanitation and by combating various infectious diseases (especially HIV). Life expectancy is a meaningful indicator of the state of social development and accurately reflects the general state of a particular society. It has been shown that GDP per capita (PPP) is a key determinant of life expectancy, while other important factors play the role of a further modifier.

Medical Malpractice Litigation Following Hindfoot Arthrodesis

Given high patient expectations in the setting of complex surgeries, orthopedic surgeons are at risk of being subject to malpractice claims which can impose significant economic and psychological burden. This study investigates malpractice claims against orthopedic surgeons and podiatrists performing hindfoot arthrodesis and determine factors associated with plaintiff verdicts and settlements using the Westlaw legal database. The database was queried for all cases involving hindfoot arthrodesis using the terms “malpractice” and either “ankle fusion,” “arthrodesis,” “subtalar fusion,” “tibiotalar fusion,” “tibiotalocalcaneal fusion,” “TTC fusion,” or “tibiofibular fusion” from 1987 to 2023. Data regarding patient demographics, causes cited for litigation, case outcomes, and indemnity settlements were collected. Cases were excluded if the defendant was not an orthopedic surgeon or a podiatrist, the procedure involved was not a hindfoot arthrodesis, or if the patient was a minor. Forty-five cases of hindfoot arthrodesis met the inclusion criteria. The mean plaintiff age was 51.5 ± 13.8 years with 51.1% male. Thirty-three cases (73%) were in favor of the defendant, with an average inflation-adjusted payout of $853,863 (±456,179). The most alleged category of negligence was procedural/intraoperative error (75%) followed by postsurgical error (38%) and failure to inform (31%). The most common specific damages included functional/ROM limitation (49%), need for additional surgery (47%), continuing/worsened pain (27%), and nonunion/malunion (29%). Given the frequency of hindfoot arthrodesis performed, this study highlights the importance of effective communication with patients concerning potential postoperative complications, prognosis of their injury, and risks and benefits associated with each treatment modality.

Coping with Stress and Negative Emotions

The twentieth century has been called the age of anxiety and stress. There is alarming increase m health problems related to tension and anxiety. Some 75 per cent of diseases are said to be stress related. For e.g., hypertension, heart disease, gastric ulcers, migraine, ulcerative colitis etc. Stress related mental diseases are seen regularly. People are spending lots of money to get tranquilizers prescription to relieve tension. Lots of relaxation centers have come up to give respite to the stressed. Younger generation is experiencing more stress as they are constantly in competition with others, but others are also not spared as the stress factor changes, but stress persists. Today job related stress is commonest of all, as it involves high expectations, result oriented jobs, constant monitoring, rewards and punishment linked with performance. This research paper deals with the concept of coping as well as various coping styles.

P‐60: Automotive Dual Cell microZone™ LCD Gamma Control Algorithm

Consumer experience with high performing mobile device displays sets high expectations for the automotive market in contrast, color performance and brightness. OLED based displays continue to experience difficulties in penetrating the automotive display market primarily due to image burn at high luminance operation and high costs. The microZone™ LCD is an alternative display configuration that can meet the desirable properties of OLED displays while providing high luminance at high temperature operation without image burn in.

Evaluation of social appearance concerns and satisfaction after orthognathic surgery

The main aim of orthognathic surgery is to provide a good occlusion and masticatory function and to achieve positive changes in facial aesthetics. The aim of this study was to determine the reasons behind patients' acceptance of orthognathic surgery and their expectations from this treatment, to assess whether their expectations were met, the change in their self-confidence and their satisfaction, and finally, to use the results obtained to inform future surgical procedures to increase patient satisfaction. The study was designed as a cross-sectional observational study and included 73 people treated with orthognathic surgery (surgery group) and 42 people with minimal crowding who did not require treatment (control group). The study found that the primary reason for requesting orthognathic surgery was to improve facial appearance and that patients had high expectations in this regard. Using the Social Appearance Anxiety Questionnaire and the Expectation and Satisfaction Questionnaire, 73.97 % of patients in our study said the treatment met their expectations and 90.41 % said they were satisfied with the overall results of the surgery. The study also highlighted the importance of surgeon-patient communication and the satisfaction of the patient's environment with the final result in determining patient satisfaction. In conclusion, since patients' high expectations of orthognathic surgery influence treatment success and patient satisfaction, it is important to know and manage patients' expectations before treatment and to have good patient-surgeon communication to increase patient satisfaction after surgery.

Stress Detection in IT Professionals Using Machine Learning

Abstract: In today's fast-paced technology landscape, stress management. The work environment in the IT field is often characterized by long hrs, and high expectations, which can leading to elevated stress levels. Unchecked stress not only impacts the health and well-being of professionals but also affects in job satisfaction. This study aims to predicting the stress levels of IT professionals using machine learning techniques, thereby aiding in proactive stress management. We utilize a range of features indicative of work stress, including Heart Rate, Skin Conductivity, Hours Worked, Number of Emails Sent, and Meetings Attended. These features provide a physiological and work-related factors that contribute to stress. The application of [ML] in this context serves as an innovative approach to an increasingly pertinent issue. By leveraging the power of data analytics, this model aims to organizations. Individuals we can use for self-monitoring and early intervention, while organizations can utilize them to identify high-stress environments or roles, thereby allocating resources or interventions more effectively. Our preliminary results indicate a strong correlation between the chosen features and stress levels, demonstrating the viability of using ml for stress prediction in IT professionals. This study stands as a crucial step towards a more data-driven approach to mental health condition

Neural basis of reward expectancy inducing proactive aggression.

Proactive aggression refers to deliberate and unprovoked behavior, typically motivated by personal gain or expected reward. Reward expectancy is generally recognized as a critical factor that may influence proactive aggression, but its neural mechanisms remain unknown. We conducted a task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiment to investigate the relationship between reward expectancy and proactive aggression. 37 participants (20 females, mean age = 20.8 ± 1.42, age range = 18-23 years) completed a reward-harm task. In the experiment, reward valence expectancy and reward possibility expectancy were manipulated respectively by varying amounts (low: 0.5-1.5 yuan; high: 10.5-11.5 yuan) and possibilities (low: 10%-30%; high: 70%-90%) of money that participants could obtain by choosing to aggress. Participants received fMRI scans throughout the experiment. Brain activation regions associated with reward expectancy mainly involve the middle frontal gyrus, lingual gyrus, inferior temporal gyrus, anterior cuneus, caudate nucleus, inferior frontal gyrus, cingulate gyrus, anterior central gyrus, and posterior central gyrus. Associations between brain activation and reward expectancy in the left insula, left middle frontal gyrus, left thalamus, and right middle frontal gyrus were found to be related to proactive aggression. Furthermore, the brain activation regions primarily involved in proactive aggression induced by reward expectancy were the insula, inferior frontal gyrus, inferior temporal gyrus, pallidum, and caudate nucleus. Under conditions of high reward expectancy, participants engage in more proactive aggressive behavior. Reward expectancy involves the activation of reward- and social-cognition-related brain regions, and these associations are instrumental in proactive aggressive decisions.