Higher Elevation Zones Research Articles

Agroecological, climatic, land elevation and socio-economic determinants of pesticide use at the farm level in Bangladesh

This study examines the influence of agroecology, climate, land elevation and socio-economic factors on pesticide use at the farm level using a large survey data of 2083 farms from 17 districts covering 10 agroecological zones in Bangladesh by applying a Tobit model. Overall, 75.4% of farmers used pesticides in any one crop. Within the pesticide users, pesticide use rate is highest in oilseed production estimated at BDT 2508.6ha−1 (3.74% of gross output value) followed by jute at BDT 1976.1ha−1 (1.88% of gross output value). Pesticide use is significantly lower in floodplain agroecologies, high rainfall areas, high land and low land elevation zones but significantly higher in medium high land elevation zone. Among the socio-economic factors, pulse area significantly reduces pesticide use whereas an increase in rice and pulse prices and organic manure application significantly increases it. Educated farmers and medium/large as well as small farms use significantly more pesticides. Policy implications include investments in developing crop varieties suitable for floodplain agroecologies, high rainfall, high land and low land elevation zones, expansion of pulse area and a reduction in fertilizer prices.

Empfindlichkeit typischer Schweizer Waldbestände auf den Klimawandel

Sensitivity of typical Swiss forest stands to climate change In Switzerland, first climate-induced changes of forest ecosystems can be observed. However, it is widely unknown how and to what extent the typical (widespread) forest stands will respond to future climate change. With the data of the third National forest inventory and the forest succession model ForClim we examined the development 71 typical stands under current and future climatic conditions (A2 emission scenario) with and without management, respectively. The simulations show a weak response until the middle of the century. In contrast, an increased sensitivity towards the end of the century becomes apparent, expressed by declines of basal area at lower elevations, respectively increases at higher elevations. The responses of forest stands are depending on site-specific characteristics. For example, Norway spruce is expected to decline up to higher elevations. Our results show an increase of deciduous tree species in higher elevation zones, particularly if management is applied. The impacts of climate change on important forest ecosystems services vary along a bioclimatic elevation gradient. Thereby, current forest management shows approaches how to at least partly counteract adverse effects of climate change. However, target- and site-specific strategies are needed and, particularly with regard to lower elevations, more knowledge on the potential of tree species to adapt is required.

Projected impact of climate change on the effectiveness of the existing protected area network for biodiversity conservation within Yunnan Province, China

Climate change is projected to impact on biodiversity conservation and the effectiveness of the existing protected area network in biologically rich Yunnan Province of southwestern China. A statistically derived bioclimatic stratification is used to analyze projected bioclimatic conditions across Yunnan by the year 2050. The multi-model approach is based on an ensemble of CIMP5 Earth System Models, downscaled to a set of 1km2 resolution climate projections (n=63), covering four representative concentration pathways (RCP). Nine bioclimatic zones, composed of 33 strata, are currently found within Yunnan. By 2050, the mean elevation of these zones is projected to shift upwards by an average of 269m, with large increases in area of the warmer zones, and decreases in the colder, higher elevation zones. Temperate and alpine areas of high biodiversity value are at risk. Displacement in the geographic distribution of bioclimatic conditions is likely to have substantial impact across all bioclimatic zones, vegetation types, and habitats currently found in Yunnan. On average, across all RCPs, 45% of the total combined area of the protected area network will shift to a completely different zone, with 83% shifting to a different strata. The great majority of protected area will experience substantially changed, spatially shifted, and novel bioclimatic conditions by 2050. The spatial displacement and upwards shifting of bioclimatic conditions indicates a prolonged period of significant ecological perturbation, which will have a major impact upon the conservation effectiveness of the established protected area network, and other conservation efforts across Yunnan.

Topography as a driver of diversification in the Cape Floristic Region of South Africa.

The rugged topography of the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), South Africa, is frequently invoked to explain the spectacular radiation of the Cape flora, but the mechanisms involved remain unclear. Where recent authors emphasize the importance of elevation gradients as stimuli for ecological speciation, earlier workers stressed the role of topography as an isolating mechanism, particularly in montane lineages. Using six Cape plant lineages, we tested whether elevation niches are phylogenetically conserved. We then assessed whether high-elevation species are more consistently range-restricted than low-elevation species, and whether high-elevation sisters show stronger range exclusivity (allopatry) and weaker ecological and phenotypic differentiation, suggestive of nonecological speciation. Elevation niches tend to be phylogenetically conserved. Also, high-elevation species are more consistently range-restricted than low-elevation species, potentially explaining the generally stronger range exclusivity of high-elevation sisters. While the high-elevation zone is less homogeneous ecologically, more data are required to demonstrate that high-elevation sister species show generally weaker ecological and phenotypic differentiation. Topographic complexity promotes geographical isolation at high elevations, thereby providing opportunities for nonecological, vicariant speciation. While recognizing the need for additional data, we suggest that the upland and lowland floras of the CFR may differ with regard to predominant speciation mode.

Dispersal spectra, diaspore size and the importance of endozoochory in the equatorial Andean montane forests

The dispersal syndrome hypothesis states that plant diaspores show morphological features that are the results of adaptation for dispersal by a particular vector. This can enable to identify the relative importance of dispersal agents within plant communities. Nevertheless, there is still little information about seed dispersal spectra and diaspore traits related to different dispersal agents in the equatorial montane forests, despite their high biodiversity and important ecosystem services as watersheds for human communities. Due to an increase in environmental stress at high elevations a reduction in the prevalence of endozoochory, and a reduction in the size of endozoochorous diaspores in plant assemblages could be expected. We reviewed published data from 64 Andean cloud forest plots to assess the dispersal spectra, the incidence of different traits related to seed dispersal, and the distribution of dispersal syndromes within cloud forests of northern South America. We then evaluated two questions related to seed dispersal in these forests: (1) Does the number and percentage of endozoochorous species in woody plant assemblages decrease at higher elevation? and (2) Does the mean diaspore size of endozoochorously dispersed tree assemblages decrease with elevation?Endozoochory was the main dispersal syndrome of the woody plant species evaluated. Associated diaspore traits, such as single seeded, small size and black or purple fruits, were the most common, probably because they are attractive to bird seed dispersers. The most common fruit types in cloud forests were berries, drupes and dehiscent capsules. On the other hand, the percentage of endozoochorous species in cloud forests was correlated to the mean annual temperature, rather than annual rainfall. We also found a distinct increase in anemochory with elevation. Furthermore, and as predicted, we found that the mean diaspore length of endozoochorous assemblages decreased with altitude. Our results suggest that in the equatorial montane forests, endozoochory is the most common dispersal syndrome although environmental stress in high elevation zones promotes an increase in the prevalence of anemochorous species. Anemochorous species produce dry fruits and small diaspores, probably favored at high elevations due to the low temperatures and nutrients availability and the high costs involved in the production of suitable pulp for animal dispersers.

Vegetation cover variation in the Qilian Mountains and its response to climate change in 2000–2011

An understanding of variations in vegetation cover in response to climate change is critical for predicting and managing future terrestrial ecosystem dynamics. Because scientists anticipate that mountain ecosystems will be more sensitive to future climate change compared to others, our objectives were to investigate the impacts of climate change on variation in vegetation cover in the Qilian Mountains (QLM), China, between 2000 and 2011. To accomplish this, we used linear regression techniques on 250-m MODIS Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) datasets and meteorological records to determine spatiotemporal variability in vegetation cover and climatic factors (i.e. temperature and precipitation). Our results showed that temperatures and precipitation have increased in this region during our study period. In addition, we found that growing season mean NDVI was mainly distributed in the vertical zone from 2,700 m to 3,600 m in elevation. In the study region, we observed significant positive and negative trends in vegetation cover in 26.71% and 2.27% of the vegetated areas. Correlation analyses indicated that rising precipitation from May to August was responsible for increased vegetation cover in areas with positive trends in growing season mean NDVI. However, there was no similar significant correlation between growing season mean NDVI and precipitation in regions where vegetation cover declined throughout our study period. Using spatial statistics, we found that vegetation cover frequently declined in areas within the 2,500–3,100 m vertical zone, where it has steep slope, and is on the sunny side of mountains. Here, the positive influences of increasing precipitation could not offset the drier conditions that occurred through warming trends. In contrast, in higher elevation zones (3,900–4,500 m) on the shaded side of the mountains, rising temperatures and increasing precipitation improved conditions for vegetation growth. Increased precipitation also facilitated vegetation growth in areas experiencing warming trends at lower elevations (2,000–2,400 m) and on lower slopes where water was more easily conserved. We suggest that spatial differences in variation in vegetation as the result of climate change depend on local moisture and thermal conditions, which are mainly controlled by topography (e.g. elevation, aspect, and slope), and other factors, such as local hydrology.

Resilience against exotic species invasion in a tropical montane forest

AbstractQuestionHow do canopy disturbance and soil properties structure vascular plant community species composition and resilience to encroachment by exotic species in a tropical montane wet forest?LocationHawai'i Experimental Tropical Forest (HETF), a tropical montane wet forest, on Mauna Kea, Hawai'i Island, Hawai'i, USA.MethodsPrevious studies employing airborne LiDAR were used to define three zones across an elevation gradient from 900 to 1500 m. Within each zone, a ~1000‐m block transect was selected to cross two different volcanic substrates: one derived from surface lava and one derived from thick ash deposits. Non‐metric multidimensional scaling (NMS) scores of vegetation data were related to independently‐derived environmental NMS scores and spatial location with generalized additive models (GAM).ResultsVascular plant species composition in all elevation zones consists of three NMS axes, which are best modelled by one of three possible environmental NMS axes or by location. The first NMS axis of species composition in the lowest elevation zone (40% variance explained (VE)) is a function of location on volcanic substrates (61% deviance explained (DE)). The second lowest elevation axis (27% VE) is a function of unexplained spatial heterogeneity (31% DE). The third lowest elevation NMS axis (24% VE) is a function of the spatial mosaic of canopy disturbance (16% DE). In the middle elevation zone, species composition most strongly relates to the interaction between volcanic substrate and the condition of the soil surface for all three NMS axes (41%, 27%, 24% VE; 70%, 16%, 24% DE). The primary axis of species composition in the highest elevation zone (41% VE) corresponds with substrate and soil condition (55% DE) but the second and third axes of species composition (27% and 25% VE) relate to canopy dieback disturbance (36%, 14% DE). Counts of exotic species and 0–2 m height class native tree species respond to the type of volcanic substrate and soil surface condition in all three elevation zones. Lava‐derived substrates have a higher incidence of exotic species and less native tree regeneration; whereas ash‐derived substrates have higher numbers of native tree species regenerating and many fewer exotic species.DiscussionThe tropical montane forests on Mauna Kea reflect a native‐dominated plant community response to disturbance on both lava‐ and ash‐derived volcanic substrates, and a higher propensity for exotic species to occur on the lava‐derived substrate. Native plant communities on ash‐derived soils may have higher resilience to exotic invasion than communities on lava‐derived substrates. Our results indicate resource managers should explicitly account for variation in soils and substrate type when prioritizing, implementing and monitoring management interventions to foster native plant assemblages and control the spread of exotic and invasive species.

Effects of Temperature upon Water Turnover in Fish Ponds in Northern Thailand

Fish culture in earthen ponds is an important source of income for farmers in northern Thailand. Water quality in ponds has strong impacts on fish production farmers’ return and is sensitive to weather and climate. Low levels of dissolved oxygen in fish ponds are major cause of mass mortality. Stratification with depth in ponds followed by rapid turnover or exchange of surface and bottom water can expose fish to dangerously low dissolved oxygen levels. The main purpose of this study was to observe the effects of weather on stratification and subsequent water turnover in fish ponds in northern Thailand, especially in the winter and rainy season, when stratification was expected to be most severe. Temperature and water quality measurements were made in fish ponds at 18 farms with depths ranged from 0.8-2.0 m and size of 0.16-0.64 ha. Measurements were made during January and May 2013. Fish farm pond sites were divided into two groups based on elevation above sea level: low ( 400 masl) and categorized into 3 types of farming: commercial, integrated and subsistence. In lower elevation sites, water turnover occurred at night between 22.00 and 02.00 in winter and between 18.00 and 02.00 in rainy season. At higher elevation, turnover occurred in ponds between 20.00 and 22.00 in winter and between 14.00 and 18.00 in rainy season. Turnover was slower in the lower elevation than in higher elevation zones and generally occurred earlier during the rainy season than in the winter. Mean DO in winter was significantly higher (p<0.05) than in rainy season, whilst water temperature and amount of ammonia-nitrogen during the rainy season was significantly higher (p<0.05) than in winter. Turnover improves distribution of dissolved oxygen through the water column and minimizes organic matter accumulation. Cloud cover during the rainy season may have contributed to limit oxygen production and thus may have significantly affect water quality in ponds. Fish farmers should consider more explicitly the role of temperature and cloud conditions when managing dissolved oxygen levels in their fish ponds. Therefore, efficient pond aeration or pond mixing strategies for reducing stratification still plays an important component for providing sound pond management in tilapia production ponds.

Variability in effect of climate change on rain-on-snow peak flow events in a temperate climate

► Historically extreme peak flows in a temperate climate are rain-on-snow events. ► Climate change is predicted to decrease the number of rain-on-snow events. ► The transient rain/snow zone is predicted to increase in elevation with climate change. ► Decreases in rain-on-snow events increased frequency of peak flows <5–10 year return. ► Decreases in rain-on-snow events decreased frequency of peak flows >10 year return. The frequency of rain-on-snow (ROS) hydrologic events, which produce high runoff volumes and lead to large-scale flooding and avalanching, are likely to change in the future as the types and timing of precipitation change. The relationship between ROS precipitation events and peak daily flow events ⩾1-year return were examined for historical and future runoff affected by climate change within the Santiam River Basin, Oregon. Historical streamflow records and modeled historical and future streamflow projections were analyzed for three sites across three elevation zones defined by the dominant precipitation types; rain, rain and snow transition, and snow. The results illustrate that, across elevation zones, historical peak daily flows ⩾1-year return have a high frequency (>60%) of association with ROS. The historical association between peak daily flows and ROS is highest within the transient rain and snow elevation band (350–1100 m), with 80% and 100% of ⩾1 and ⩾5-year return peak flows associated with ROS, respectively. In a future with increased air temperature due to climate change, our results indicate that a decrease in the frequency of high peak flow ROS events will occur in the low and middle elevation zones while the frequency of ROS associated peak flows will increase in high elevation areas. The transition of winter precipitation from snow to rain is predicted to increase peak daily flows <5–10-year return interval and decrease peak daily flows ⩾10-year return in the middle to high elevation zones.

Urban Built-up Area Assessment of Ranchi Township Using Cartosat-I Stereopairs Satellite Images

In the present study, the Cartosat-I digital elevation model (DEM) was utilized to deduce the vertical characteristics of Ranchi urban area and its relation to long term built-up expansion (1927–2010). The DEM represents moderate variation in terrain relief ranging from 595 m to 754 m with majority of area exhibiting upto 3° of slope and 3° to 6° indicating flat to undulating nature of terrain in Ranchi township. The DEM was used to generate location of sinks within urban area, which are generally delineated along the drainage channels, adjacent to high-rise built-up land and along the elevated road network. The pattern of urban sprawl over the eight decades (1927–2010) were examined with reference to terrain relief zones, which indicated that the built-up growth was mainly taken place over the elevation range of moderate (620–660 m) (67.0%) and high relief (660–680 m) (19.8%) zones. Although earlier preference for built-up development was more in high elevation zones (660–680 m), the low elevation zones (<600–620 m) are now preferred for multistoried built-up land development where better groundwater availability occur. The spatial pattern of vertical growth of built-up land was assessed using contour density obtained from Cartosat-I DEM. The results show that the high density contours predominately correspond to hilly area and high-rise buildings at majority of locations. The urban sprawl pattern and population trend exhibited rapid increase in vertical built-up growth after 1996 indicating beginning of urban densification in Ranchi township.

Prospects and Challenges of Decentralized Wind Applications in the Himalayan Terrain

Wind energy has the potential to meet energy needs in remote areas. Exploitation of wind resource requires prospecting at the regional levels to assess the technical feasibility for small-scale wind applications. In situations of sparse primary data (surface wind), synthesised wind data based on prudent models are helpful. The current study focuses on the prospects of wind energy in the federal state of Himachal Pradesh, India, characterized by undulating terrain. Three synthesised wind data were collected based on physiographical understanding of the region and validated with long term surface wind measurements available for limited locations. The most representative synthesised wind data were re-validated using statistical methods and seasonal wind profiles were mapped through geospatial techniques. Variations of seasonal wind speeds in the region were consistent with surface measurements and highest range of 1~3.25 m/s was observed in the monsoon season. Large spatial influences of the elevation gradient were observed in the seasonal wind profiles. The high elevation zone (including Lahual Spiti, Kinnaur, Kullu and Shimla districts) in Himachal Pradesh have relatively higher wind speeds (> 2 m/s) during all seasons. These districts were identified as suitable candidates for detailed wind exploration. Wind potential in Himachal Pradesh is observed to be suitable for small-scale wind applications like low wind speed turbines, agricultural water pumps, wind-solar hybrids, space/water heaters, battery charging etc. Improvement in small-scale wind technologies will provide impetus to decentralised and cost effective solutions to meet energy demand in remote regions sustainably.

Evaluation of a cloud-gap-filled MODIS daily snow cover product over the Pacific Northwest USA

Summary The cloud-gap-filled (CGF) method developed by Hall et al. (2010) is a novel method for efficiently mitigating cloud obscuration using the most recently available cloud-free observations from prior days at each pixel. In this paper, we extend this method not only using prior observations but also using subsequent observations. Four CGF using 3 or 5 days prior or subsequent observations are applied to the standard MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) snow cover product and are evaluated against 3-years, in situ observations at 244 SNOwpack TELemetry (SNOTEL) stations. Results indicate that daily CGF snow cover maps using prior or subsequent observations are obviously different due to daily cloud shifting. However, the monthly and annual cloud reductions are similar. Although the overall accuracies under all-sky conditions of CGF using prior or subsequent observations are very similar, CGF snow cover maps using subsequent images have less underestimation errors, except during the snow melting period, and higher snow accuracies. When the observation interval is expanded from 3 to 5 days, this method is able to fill more cloud obscurations and increase the overall accuracies by ∼30% and ∼37%, respectively; however, they introduce slightly more uncertainty. Monthly and regional analyses indicate that this method is more efficient during the snow-covered period or in high-elevation zones.

Altitudinal differences in bark stripping by sika deer in the subalpine coniferous forest of Mt. Fuji

Deer expansion is a growing concern for forest ecosystem management. In Japan, upward expansion to subalpine and alpine areas has reached alarming proportions in recent years. We examined bark stripping by sika deer along an altitudinal gradient in the subalpine coniferous forest at three altitude ranges (1800–2000 m, 2000–2200 m, and 2200–2400 m) on the southern slope of Mt. Fuji. We tested differences in densities and diameter at breast height (DBH) of trees and those with bark-stripped stems of all tree species among the three altitude ranges. Then, we compared the relative densities of deer, based on pellet counts, to determine the impact of deer in relation to deer use and forest stand patterns across the altitudinal range studied. The results of the study show that differences in bark stripping by sika deer depended largely on the elevation and the species. Larger stems were sparsely distributed in the lowest elevation zone between 1800 and 2000 m. The relative density of deer was highest in the areas exhibiting high bark-stripping intensity on small regenerating trees of the dominant coniferous species, Abies veitchii, and on broadleaf species. In the highest elevation zone between 2200 and 2400 m, smaller stems were densely distributed, and the relative deer density was lowest where the bark-stripping intensity on small stems was lower for all three species studied. The damage to subalpine tree stems corresponded to the availability of palatable tree species with a small diameter, as reflected by the successional stage along the elevational gradient of subalpine forest on Mt. Fuji. These results suggest that the continuous impact of bark stripping on the dominant tree species might cause severe changes in forest succession.

Outbreeding Depression Caused by Intraspecific Hybridization Between Local and Nonlocal Genotypes in Abies sachalinensis

To evaluate the effects of intraspecific hybridization of local and nonlocal genotypes on growth traits of progeny in Abies sachalinensis, we performed reciprocal crossing between nonlocal trees in a high‐elevation zone (1,100–1,200 m asl) and local trees in a low‐elevation zone (530 m asl) in Hokkaido, northern Japan, in 1979 and established a common garden experiment using local × local (female × male ), local × nonlocal , nonlocal × local , and nonlocal × nonlocal progeny in the low‐elevation zone in 1986. Survival, height, diameter at breast height (dbh), needle nitrogen content, specific leaf area (SLA), and needle area per shoot diameter (NA) of 25‐year‐old progeny were measured in 2005. The survival rate was consistently high (&gt;85% on average). Reductions in height and dbh were apparent in F1 hybrids compared with local × local progeny. Furthermore, outbreeding depression was significant in height growth of nonlocal × local F1 hybrids and in dbh of both F1 hybrids. Reductions in growth traits may be related to morphological needle traits, such as the low values of SLA and NA. Elevation guidelines for A. sachalinensis seed zones are discussed to ensure the long‐term viability of both restored and native populations.

Temporal precipitation variability versus altitude on a tropical high mountain: Observations and mesoscale atmospheric modelling

AbstractThe occurrence of maximum precipitation amounts (Pmax) on tropical high mountains at mid elevations is well documented (spatial variability), but little is known about the temporal variability of precipitation in different elevation zones. The present study targets this issue by combining various types of observations on and around Kilimanjaro (East Africa, 5895 m a.s.l.) with mesoscale atmospheric modelling. In observations, the vertical moisture profiles of air masses approaching the mountain clearly differ during ‘normal’ and ‘significant’ daily precipitation events on Kilimanjaro's summit, while model experiments illustrate that the elevation zone of Pmax is shifted upslope substantially during the latter events. Large (small) differences in precipitation therefore appear in the dry (moist) high‐elevation (mid‐ and low‐elevation) zones of the mountain. This space–time pattern is evident in observations of seasonal precipitation variability on Kilimanjaro and on nearby Mount Kenya for anomalous wet seasons, which are controlled by the frequency of ‘significant’ daily events. The upslope shift of Pmax in the model is favoured by dynamical factors (stronger air ascent and higher static instability of clouds), microphysical processes (greater efficiency in converting condensate to precipitation over high‐elevation terrain), and related feedback mechanisms (stronger latent heating). Beyond the seasonal scale, tropical climate change also entails changed frequencies of dry‐ and moist‐air advection, which is demonstrated for the Kilimanjaro region over 1979–2006. Thus, long‐term changes of precipitation are probably most drastic in the dry summit zones of tropical high mountains. Copyright © 2009 Royal Meteorological Society

Linking Hydrogeological and Ecological Tools for an Integrated River Catchment Assessment

Ecological (biological and hydrochemical assessment) and hydrogeological (vulnerability and pollution risk mapping) tools have been combined to assess the ecological quality and hydrogeological vulnerability of an agricultural river basin. In addition, the applicability of the recently developed vulnerability assessment approach (COP method) in the particular environmental conditions was tested by comparing its results with hydroecological assessment tools (i.e., pollution metrics). Five sampling sites were selected and sampled for benthic macroinvertebrates and physicochemical variables during summer and spring. Overall, sites ranged from moderate to poor ecological quality. The results illustrated that 26% of the study area was of moderate pollution risk, while 65% was classified as of low and very low risk zones. However, the higher elevation zones where calcareous rock formations are encountered presented moderate to high pollution risk that was accredited by the ecological quality assessment. Pollution metrics facilitated from hydrochemical analysis indicated a significant association with groundwater vulnerability, thus validating vulnerability and risk estimations. This study indicated that the particular groundwater pollution risk mapping methodology and the water quality assessment indices can be well combined to provide an integrated evaluation tool at a catchment scale.

Application of ecological-niche factor analysis in habitat assessment of giant pandas

Ecological-niche factor analysis (ENFA) is a multivariate approach to study geographic distribution of species on a large scale with only “presence” data. It has been widely applied in many fields including wildlife management, habitat assessment and habitat prediction. In this paper, this approach was applied in habitat suitability assessment for giant pandas in Pingwu County, Sichuan Province, China. With “presence” data of giant pandas and remote sensing data, habitat suitability of pandas in this county was evaluated based on ENFA model, and spatial distribution pattern of nature reserves and conservation gaps were then evaluated. The results show that giant pandas in this county prefer high-elevation zones (> 2128 m) dominated by coniferous forest, and mixed coniferous and deciduous broadleaf forest, and avoid deciduous broadleaf forest and shrubs. Pandas avoid staying at habitats with human disturbances. Farmland is a major factor threatening panda habitat. Panda habitat is mainly distributed in north and west of Pingwu with a total area of 234033 hm 2, 106345hm 2 for suitable habitat and 127688 hm 2 for marginally suitable habitat). 3 nature reserves were located in Pingwu, covering over 49.2% of total suitable habitat and 45.6% of total marginally suitable habitat. Although 47.2% of panda habitat was in reserves under protection, connectivity between reserves was weak and a conservation gap existed in the north part of Pingwu. Thus, a new nature reserve in Baima and Mupi should be established to link the isolated habitats.

The climate of the coast and fog zone in the Tarapacá Region, Atacama Desert, Chile

In the Atacama Desert, the narrow littoral plain and the adjacent mountain range have a unique climate. This area is locally called the “coastal desert with abundant cloudiness”, and extends from the coastline up to an elevation of 1000 m. The climate is designated as being BWn according to Köppen's Climate Classification as adapted for Chile. In the original classification the acronym (Bn) is used for foggy environments. Toward the east a “normal desert” climate (BW) is found. This is known as one of the most extreme deserts of the world. In the BWn areas there are meteorological differences between low and high elevation zones. The climate of the coastal plains and the mountains is described in this paper in order to show that there is an area where the climate differs from those classified as BWn and BW in the Chilean Climate Classification. This area is located between 650 and 1200 m a.s.l. and contains several fog oases or lomas vegetation, rich in biodiversity and endemism. The weather is warmer near sea level, with an annual average temperature of 18 °C. At high elevation sites like Alto Patache, the temperature decreases at a rate of 0.7 °C for every 100-m increase in altitude. The average annual minimum temperature often approaches 1 °C in winter, while the mean annual temperature range is significant (8.3 °C in Los Cóndores). The mean monthly relative humidity in Alto Patache is over 80%, except during the summer months. During autumn, winter and spring high elevation fog is present in the study area at altitudes ranging from 650 m up to 1060 m, giving annual water yields of 0.8 to 7 L m − 2 day − 1 . If vegetation is used as an indicator, the foggy zone lies between 650 m a.s.l. and 1200 m a.s.l. About 70% of the mountain range experiences the foggy climate, as opposed to the coastal plains that are characterized by a cloudy climate.

Patterns of diversity in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) germplasm collected from different elevations in Kenya

Pigeonpea germplasm accessions collected from low ( 1500 m) of Kenya were evaluated for 15 agronomic traits and seed protein content at ICRISAT, Patancheru, India. There were significant differences (P < 0.001) among elevation zones for the number of primary and secondary branches, days to 75% maturity, pod length, seeds per pod, 100-seed weight and seed yield. Mean values indicated that the accessions from low elevation zone were significantly different from those collected in higher elevation zones for early flowering and maturity, number of primary branches, pod length, number of pods per plant, seeds per pod, 100-seed weight, seed yield and harvest index. None of the accessions collected in Kenya belonged to extra early (<80 days to 50% flowering) and early (80–100 days to 50% flowering) maturity groups, as defined by time to flowering at Patancheru, India. Mean diversity index based on all characters indicated that accessions from the low elevation zone are more diverse than those from the higher elevation zones. Frequency distribution for trait extremes indicated that the accessions from the low elevation zone were early to flower and mature, short statured, produced more primary and secondary branches with high pod bearing length, long pods, more pods per plant, more seeds per pod, a high seed yield and harvest index. Accessions from the very high elevation zone were late flowering, with a large number of tertiary branches, large seeds and a high shelling percentage and could be a source for cold tolerance and the breeding of vegetable types. Results suggest that the elevation of collection sites is therefore a very important determinant of variation patterns of pigeonpea in Kenya.

Development and analysis of a 12-year daily 1-km forest fire dataset across North America from NOAA/AVHRR data

Fires in boreal and temperate forests play a significant role in the global carbon cycle. While forest fires in North America (NA) have been surveyed extensively by U.S. and Canadian forest services, most fire records are limited to seasonal statistics without information on temporal evolution and spatial expansion. Such dynamic information is crucial for modeling fire emissions. Using the daily Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) data archived from 1989 to 2000, an extensive and consistent fire product was developed across the entire NA forest regions on a daily basis at 1-km resolution. The product was generated following data calibration, geo-referencing, and the application of an active fire detection algorithm and a burned area mapping algorithm. The spatial–temporal variation of forest fire in NA is analyzed in terms of (1) annual and monthly patterns of fire occurrences in different eco-domains, (2) the influence of topographic factors (elevation zones, aspect classes, and slope classes), and (3) major forest types and eco-regions in NA. It was found that 1) among the 12 years analyzed, 1989 and 1995 were the most severe fire years in NA; 2) the majority of burning occurred during June–July and in low elevation zones (< 500 m) with gentle slopes (< 10°), except in the dry eco-domain where more fires occurred in higher elevation zones (> 2000 m); 3) most fires occurred in the polar eco-domain, sub-arctic eco-division, and in the taiga ( boreal forests), forest-tundras and open woodlands eco-provinces in the boreal forests of Canada. The tendency for multiple burns to occur increases with elevation and slope until about 2500 m elevation and 24° slope, and decreases therefore. In comparison with ground observations, the omission and commission errors are on the order of 20%.