Herd Health Status Research Articles

Health status and bio-security plans on pig farms

Preservation of necessary level of swine herd health status is the most important aspect of bio-security, farm production and successful welfare protection. It involves a list of bio-security measures which must be essential part of production technology, including good rearing conditions and other prophylactic measures appliance. According to previously performed investigations, a list of elements required to establish standards for bio-security for particular pig farm was created. The list includes elements related to assure spatial., microclimate and hygienic conditions for pigs rearing, care, nutrition and watering, surveillance, regrouping and transport of swine, disease outbreak control, barns equipment and production process organization which are performed by veterinarians and zootechnicians. Bio-security standards must concern necessary level of swine herd health status and organization, size and type of operation and anticipate all compulsory measures for health control and disease spreading prevention, particularly those whose outbreak must be reported. In bio-security plan structure present epidemiological situation, potential herd health and production threats, as well as possible solutions must be concerned.

Monitoring of Lawsonia intracellularis in breeding herd gilts

In modern pig production, proliferative enteropathy is a common cause of diarrhoea and poor growth in young animals. This study aimed to determine the possible spread of Lawsonia intracellularis through the sale of replacement gilts and the possibility to protect the herds by adequate biosecurity measures. This was achieved by repeated sampling of 50 gilts in an infected multiplying herd, from the last day in the farrowing pen and until sale. Further, 60 gilts sold from this herd were tested during their stay in quarantine in a recipient herd. To confirm freedom from infection, 100 growing pigs in the recipient herd were also tested. Individual faecal (n=748) and blood (n=728) samples were analysed by PCR and ELISA, respectively. Transmission of L. intracellularis from the sows to their offspring was not demonstrated. However, the possible transmission between herds by replacement gilts was demonstrated. Peak shedding occurred at 12 and 15 weeks of age, and single animals were also PCR-positive at 24–36 weeks of age in the multiplying herd and in the quarantine in the recipient herd. Further, the possible occurrence of chronically infected carrier animals was suggested. Although L. intracellularis is widely spread, it appears possible to avoid the transmission between herds by employing adequate biosecurity measures. Thus, it would be advisable to establish herd profiles in breeding herds to avoid the selling of infected animals as well as to establish the health status of the recipient herd. Further, the health status of the recipient herds should be known.

Factors affecting persistence of high Salmonella serology in Danish pig herds

In 1995, Denmark implemented a National Surveillance-and-Control Programme for Salmonella in finisher pigs. It was based on serological surveillance that enabled assignment of pig herds into three prevalence levels. Herds in levels 2 and 3 (corresponding to moderate and high Salmonella seroprevalence) were subjected to control measures, compulsory pen faecal sampling for bacteriological examination and serotyping. The initial dataset contained all herds that had mandatory bacteriological samples taken ( N = 3691 samples), out of which 44.4% were negative. Data from January 2005 to November 2007 obtained from the Danish programme were used to investigate the persistence of high serology ( Salmonella index ≥40, corresponding to levels 2 or 3) for herds infected with one of the four most common Salmonella serotypes found in pig herds, S. Typhimurium, S. Derby, S. Infantis or S. Livingstone, using survival analysis. The effects of other potential factors, such as season, year, herd size and herd health status were also evaluated. An event was defined as return to low serology measured by a Salmonella index <40, for at least 6 consecutive months. A total of 1242 pig herds positive for one of the four serotypes of interest and 1433 events were included in the preliminary analysis using the Kaplan-Meyer method. The median high serology time (survival time) was 8 months and all explanatory variables were found to be significant ( p < 0.05), except the herd health status ( p = 0.49). Cox proportional hazards regression was used for herds infected with S. Typhimurium ( N = 1066) or S. Derby ( N = 314). Herds infected with S. Typhimurium presented a lower probability for returning to low serology (HR = 0.69, p < 0.001), compared to S. Derby, indicating longer high serology periods. Herds that started having high seroprevalence in Summer and Fall had a higher probability of returning to low serology compared to those starting in Winter and Spring ( p < 0.001). Compared to 2005, periods with high Salmonella serology were fewer and shorter in 2006 and 2007 ( p < 0.001). A positive impact of herd size was found, with larger herds being associated with shorter high serology periods, compared to smaller herds ( p = 0.012). This might indicate effective implementation of biosecurity measures in large herds. The health status of the herds was not found to be a significant factor ( p = 0.87), which might reflect that biosecurity measures in place in SPF herds are not effective for clearing Salmonella infections.

Health status, production and reproduction performance in cattle herds as influenced by management

The overall trend of the reproduction performance is a reduction since at least 20 years. In Belgium, the pregnancy rate at artificial insemination decreases about 1% per year (Opsomer et al, 2006). To obtain good reproduction performance, many requisite factors are necessary. Health status, nutritional status or production level are some well-known examples. Many studies review these factors and their impact on the reproduction performance. The aim of this work was to describe the impact of health status, production and management on the reproduction performance in Walloon farms.

Evaluation of the acute phase protein haptoglobin as an indicator of herd health in slaughter pigs

AbstractHealth is an important aspect of animal welfare, which is difficult to assess at herd level. Clinical examination of individual animals is time-consuming, and most measures of clinical herd health depend significantly on the examiner. Acute phase proteins are produced during inflammatory processes, and could therefore be used as general markers of infection and injury. Our objective was to evaluate whether haptoglobin could be used to monitor the health status of herds at slaughter.107 groups of 20 slaughter pigs each were examined at two large abattoirs. Clinical signs of tail biting, lameness, injuries, abscesses, pneumonia, pleurisy, hepatitis and gastritis were recorded. The association between elevated haptoglobin concentration in meat juice samples and clinical signs was assessed via multiple logistic regression.Pigs from groups in which tail biting, lameness, othaematomas, abscesses, pneumonia, pleurisy, pericarditis or condemnations of livers, lungs or carcasses occurred, showed higher levels of haptoglobin than pigs from slaughter groups without any of these clinical signs. In the multiple regression model, only the variables of lameness and tail biting were statistically significant. The haptoglobin test classified 66% of all slaughter groups correctly according to the presence of these clinical signs. These results demonstrate the potential for haptoglobin to be used as a screening test to identify problem herds at slaughter.

Screening for Subclinical Ketosis in Dairy Cattle by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry

Subclinical ketosis is a metabolic disorder in high-producing dairy cattle that can be detected by ketone bodies in milk: acetone (Ac), acetoacetate (AcAc), and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHBA). Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry is to a growing extent used for determination of milk constituents in milk recording, but as yet there is no calibration for ketone bodies available. The objective of this study was therefore to build a calibration for the MilkoScan FT6000 (FOSS Analytical A/S, Hillerød, Denmark) for Ac, AcAc, and BHBA and to evaluate the FTIR predictions for detection of subclinical ketosis. From 217 herds, 1,080 milk samples were taken from fresh multiparous dairy cows. The Ac, AcAc, and BHBA concentrations were determined by chemical methods using segmented flow analysis. Because of its low concentration, AcAc seemed to be hardly detectable and was therefore not considered further. The correlation between the chemical method results of Ac and BHBA was 0.82, indicating that both ketone bodies were elevated in milk during subclinical ketosis. In wk 1 postpartum, however, most samples with a high Ac concentration did not have a high BHBA concentration, whereas after wk 5 postpartum most samples with a high BHBA concentration did not have a high Ac concentration. For Ac and BHBA, the correlation coefficients between the FTIR predictions and the chemical results were around 0.80 with standard error of cross validation values of 0.184 and 0.064mM for Ac and BHBA, respectively. Using thresholds of 0.15mM for Ac and 0.10mM for BHBA, high values for Ac or BHBA were detected with a sensitivity of 69 to 70%, a specificity of 95%, with 25 to 27% false positives and 6 to 7% false negatives. It is argued that FTIR predictions for Ac and BHBA are valuable for screening cows on subclinical ketosis, especially when used in combination with other indicators, and can serve in the evaluation of the herd health status with respect to subclinical ketosis.

Comparative Serological Study ofLeptospiraSerovarHardjoGenotypes for Use in the Microscopic Agglutination Test

A comparative serological study was conducted using the Leptospira microscopic agglutination test (MAT). Genotypes hardjoprajitno (HP), hardjo-bovis A (HA), and hardjo-bovis B (HB) were compared to determine which best detects hardjo antibody in cattle serum. A total of 2,431 cattle sera were tested. Sera were collected from 4 geographic regions of the United States. Samples were obtained without knowledge of breed, age, vaccination history, or herd health status. Of the sera collected, 60.7% (1,475) were negative at the 1 : 100 dilution for all three genotypes. Serological reactivity at the 1 : 100 dilution was identified in 956 (39.3%) of the sera tested. Considering the 956 positive sera, 941 (98.4%) reacted to HP, whereas the remaining 15 sera (1.6%) reacted to only HA and/or HB. A total of 394/941 (41.9%) HP positive sera failed to react to HA or HB. The results of this study support the conclusion that HP antigen was most sensitive in detection of hardjo antibody.

Use and Interpretation of Pooled Metabolic Profiles for Evaluating Transition Cow Health Status

Use of metabolic profiles for evaluating herd nutritional or health status has not been widely accepted in the United States. Costs associated with metabolic profiling have been a primary deterrent, as well as interpretation. In a traditional profile protocol eight to 12 individuals are sampled within a herd or animal group for evaluation. Profile results are then interpreted as a mean value or percent of individuals deviating from some defined values. Use of pooled samples was evaluated as a method to collect usable information on herd metabolic status without the high cost of individual sampling. Objectives of this study were to determine if blood metabolite concentrations from pooled serum samples were different from arithmetic mean results of individual samples, and to develop preliminary guidelines for interpretation of pooled samples.

A modeling study on the sustainability of a certification-and-monitoring program for paratuberculosis in cattle

Certification-and-monitoring programs for paratuberculosis are based on repetitive herd testing to establish a herd's health status. The available tests have poor sensitivity. Infected but undetected herds may remain among certified "paratuberculosis-free" herds. The objective was to determine if truly free herds acquire a certified status and keep it over time when infected but undetected herds remain. The Dutch program was used as a basis to construct a mechanistic deterministic model of the evolution over 25 years of the number of herds per health status. Three health states for herds were defined: not detected as infected in the certification process to obtain a free status; not detected as infected by any of the repetitive tests for monitoring the certified free status; detected as infected. Among undetected herds, two types were defined: truly free versus undetected but infected. Transitions between states were due to the purchase of an infected animal, infection via the environment, clearance via culling or sales, detection of an infected animal, and certification. A sensitivity analysis was carried out. We showed that--for a 100% specific test only--most of the truly free herds at the beginning of the program got a certified free status and kept it over time. Most infected herds were either detected as infected or cleared. The number of certified truly free herds increased with a decrease in the animal-level prevalence or in the risk of purchasing an infected cattle, for example by restricting purchases to cattle from herds at the highest level of certification.

Japanese encephalitis in a racing thoroughbred gelding in Hong Kong

A horse in Hong Kong that had been vaccinated against Japanese encephalitis suffered a pyrexic episode that culminated in a hyperexcitable state and self-inflicted trauma. Japanese encephalitis was diagnosed on...

Clinical herd health, farm management and antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter coli on finishing pig farms in Switzerland

The world-wide increase of antimicrobial resistance in micro-organisms complicates medical treatment of infected humans. We did a risk-factor analysis for the prevalence of antimicrobial resistant Campylobacter coli on 64 Swiss pig finishing farms. Between May and November 2001, 20 faecal samples per farm were collected from the floor of pens holding finishing pigs shortly before slaughter. Samples were pooled and cultured for Campylobacter species. Isolated Campylobacter strains were tested for resistance against selected antimicrobials. Additionally, information on herd health and management aspects was available from another study. Because data quality on the history of antimicrobial use on the farms was poor, only non-antimicrobial risk factors could be analysed. Statistical analyses were performed for resistance against ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, streptomycin, tetracycline, and for multiple resistance, which was defined as resistance to three or more antimicrobials. Risk factors for these outcomes – corrected for dependency of samples at herd level – were analysed in five generalised estimation-equation models. Prevalence of antimicrobial resistance among Campylobacter isolates was ciprofloxacin 26.1%, erythromycin 19.2%, streptomycin 78.0%, tetracycline 9.4%, and multiple resistance 6.5%. Important risk factors contributing to the prevalence of resistant strains were shortened tails, lameness, skin lesions, feed without whey, and ad libitum feeding. Multiple resistance was more likely in farms which only partially used an all-in-all-out system (OR = 37), or a continuous-flow system (OR = 3) compared to a strict all-in-all-out animal-flow. Presence of lameness (OR = 25), ill-thrift (OR = 15), and scratches at the shoulder (OR = 5) in the herd also increased the odds for multiple resistance. This study showed that on finishing farms which maintained a good herd health status and optimal farm management, the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance was also more favourable.

Occurrence of Isospora suis in Germany, Switzerland and Austria

Nationwide surveys for the occurrence of Isospora suis were carried out in Germany, Austria and Switzerland including a questionnaire regarding herd size, health status and management practices and a coccidiosis sampling kit for pooled faecal samples from litters of suckling piglets. A total of 184 veterinary practices participated in the survey and returned 1745 samples (331 kits) from 324 farms in the north (n = 98), south (n = 84), centre/east (n = 42) and west (n = 10) of Germany, Austria (n = 61) and Switzerland (n = 29) with larger farms in north and centre/east (average number of sows: 270 and 500) and smaller ones in the south (95), Austria (60) and Switzerland (43). Larger farms tended to have better hygienic standards (slatted floors, disinfection of the farrowing units). The majority of the participating farms (93.5%) reported problems with diarrhoea in piglets at 2-3 weeks of age, significantly associated (P < 0.001) with uneven weaning weights (94.9%). Toltrazuril (5%; Baycox) was used only rarely; however, in these farms unevenness of weaning weights was less frequently observed (P = 0.011). A 76.2% of the farms were positive for I. suis (samples contained mostly low or moderate oocyst numbers), especially in the south (P < 0.001). Oocysts were more frequently found in samples from farms with reported diarrhoea (P = 0.011), uneven weight gain (P = 0.019) or in herds of small size (P < 0.001). Disinfection, floor type or treatment with toltrazuril did not affect the frequency of observation of oocysts.

Regaining high health status of UK pig herds: Can it be done? How can it be done?

Until the 1990s, defining and maintaining a High Health (HH) Status was relatively straightforward. Organisations such as the Pig Health Control Association were able to define and identify certain diseases such as Enzootic Pneumonia (EP), (Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae) or Swine Dysentery (SD) (Brachyspira hyodysenteriae,) and then establish, by hysterectomy or medicated early weaning (MEW), “clean” units which became the Nucleus units of the breeding companies. These produced “clean” pigs to populate Multiplication units that eventually passed on HH breeding stock to commercial customers. Relatively straightforward laboratory and abattoir monitoring could give reasonable, repeatable assurance to customers. Good biosecurity maintained this HH status and many HH commercial units were established by destocking, cleaning, and restocking with HH pigs from these breeding companies. Then the wheels started to fall off!

Veterinary meat inspection of bovine carcasses in the Czech Republic during the period of 1995-2002

The results of veterinary meat inspection classification of 4&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;372 bovine carcasses reflect long-term aspects of health status in cattle herds and the quality of transport and handling of animals at slaughterhouses. Veterinary inspectors recorded the data obtained from meat inspection classification of bovine carcasses at slaughterhouses in the CzechRepublicduring the period of 1995&amp;ndash;2002 together with the reasons for classification. The trends were evaluated by a comparison of two periods (Period I, 1995&amp;ndash;1998, and Period II, 1999&amp;ndash;2002) by means of calculating the indexes of values from Period II compared to those of Period I. Bovine carcasses classified as capable for human consumption (edible) were found in 87.87% of cases (88.83% during Period I and 86.58% during Period&amp;nbsp;II, index 0.97), while those classified as capable for processing (conditionally edible) were found in 7.53% of cases (7.38% during Period I and 7.71% during Period II, index 1.04), and those condemned in 4.60% of cases (3.79% during Period I and 5.71% during Period II, index 1.51). The most important reason for classifying the carcasses as condemned was the finding of sensorial changes in meat, which occurred in 2.56% of cases (2.23% during Period I and 3.00% during Period II, index 1.35), followed by lesions due to non-infectious diseases &amp;ndash; 1.00% (0.81% during Period I and 1.25% during Period II, index 1.53), added deleterious substances &amp;ndash; 0.88% (0.60% during Period I and 1.27% during Period II, index 2.11), lesions due to respiratory infections &amp;ndash; 0.03% (0.02% during Period I and 0.04% during Period II, index 1.74), and lesions due to miscellaneous infectious diseases &amp;ndash; 0.10% (0.10% during Period I and 0.10% during Period II, index 1.05). Other reasons to condemn the carcasses included improper identification, lesions due to digestive infections, lesions due to tuberculosis, lesions due to paratuberculosis, lesions due to salmonellosis, leucosis and parasitic diseases. The occurrence of these conditions was on the level of mere hundredths of per cent. According to the results of meat inspection classification, the risk of food-borne diseases originating from bovine carcasses tends to be greater in the lesions due to non-infectious conditions with a long-term increasing trend. A&amp;nbsp;considerable increase in the numbers of bovine carcasses condemned because of lesions due to paratuberculosis (index 4.62) represents an alarming finding with regard to potential food safety hazards.

The Glutaraldehyde Coagulation Test (GCT) Used to Predict Health Status in Dairy Herds

As dairy farming intensifies the unit of interest is changing from the individual cow to the herd. It has become increasingly important to identify problem herds and a great challenge met by veterinary practitioners is the demand to estimate health status in herds in a way that is directly comparable between herds as well as between veterinarians. There is therefore a great need for methods that provide a consistent and objective measure of health status at herd level. The GCT test is used to estimate the level of immunoglobulins and fibrinogen semiquantitatively in bovine whole blood and thereby it detects inflammatory conditions in individual animals. The objective of this study was to apply the glutaraldehyde coagulation test (GCT) at the herd level as a health indicator to assess the level of inflammatory disease in Danish dairy herds. A total of 420 animals originating from 10 different dairy herds - each contributing 37 to 51 cows were included in the study. All cows were GCT tested and subjected to a standardized superficial clinical examination of udder, limbs and skin lesions and scored accordingly. The clinical examination was designed to detect diseases considered of major importance to animal welfare. Herd indexes for the GCT results and the clinical scores were calculated and were found to correlate well. To test the performance of the GCT in individual animals the odds of a positive GCT were calculated and found to increase significantly with increasing clinical score. The data indicate that testing approximately 40 cows gives a good indication of the level of inflammatory conditions present within a herd. These results support the possible application of the GCT as a tool in future herd health and welfare evaluations. As such it can be used to identify problem herds or groups within a herd where further intervention is needed. It must be stressed that a test like the GCT never should stand on its own and should be used to support - not replace - a trained practitioner in the surveillance of herd health and welfare. The conclusions drawn above are based on the finding that the GCT is a suitable predictor of superficial inflammatory conditions in individual cows.

Evaluation of the Economic Return of Preventive Health Care (FRISKKO) at Herd Level in Dairy Herds in Sweden

When a new preventive health care service (FRISKKO) for dairy herds was introduced in the county of Kalmar, Sweden, an attempt was made to evaluate the economic benefit of improved animal health in the participating herds. The basic FRISKKO service includes one visit annually by the veterinary practitioner and a veterinary officer from the local livestock society. All herd issues, from calves to cows, are discussed with the owner and farm employees. After the visit, the farmer receives a written document produced by the veterinarians and most often also an advisory officer specialising in feeding, covering advice and guidance. The veterinary practitioner makes a follow-up visit to the farm after approximately 6 months. During the visit, a review is also made of the key health parameters produced specifically for the herd in question. These parameters, which indicate the herd health status in comparison with other herds, are based on data from the dairy, the AI recording, milk-recording and animal disease recording systems. The evaluation was made by comparing these key parameters in a trial group of 40 herds with a control group of 199 herds, before the FRISKKO service was initiated, and after 1 and 3 years. The control group was selected to conform with the trial group in terms of geographical area, size, production and health key parameters when the evaluation started. The result was recorded as differences from the initial position. Factors allocated economic weights were: kg produced milk; increased age at first calving; prolonged average calving interval; increased number of inseminations per series; cases of mastitis treated by a veterinarian; other diseases requiring veterinary treatment; number of culled cows, and produced but not delivered milk. Production growth was the same in both groups after one year, but costs caused by health disturbances had dropped in the trial group by 300 SEK per cow and year. After 3 years, the production had further increased equally much in both groups, but the profit in the trial group had gone up to 600 SEK per cow and year due to improved animal health. The cost for the service was 100 SEK per cow and year. The conclusion is that preventive advisory services according to the FRISKKO concept result in improved animal health and production economy in the herd.

Culture-independent analysis of gut bacteria: the pig gastrointestinal tract microbiota revisited.

The phylogenetic diversity of the intestinal bacterial community in pigs was studied by comparative 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequence analysis. Samples were collected from a total of 24 pigs representing a variety of diets, ages, and herd health status. A library comprising 4,270 cloned 16S rDNA sequences obtained directly by PCR from 52 samples of either the ileum, the cecum, or the colon was constructed. In total, 375 phylotypes were identified using a 97% similarity criterion. Three hundred nine of the phylotypes (83%) had a <97% sequence similarity to any sequences in the database and may represent yet-uncharacterized bacterial genera or species. The phylotypes were affiliated with 13 major phylogenetic lineages. Three hundred four phylotypes (81%) belonged to the low-G+C gram-positive division, and 42 phylotypes (11.2%) were affiliated with the Bacteroides and Prevotella group. Four clusters of phylotypes branching off deeply within the low-G+C gram-positive bacteria and one in the Mycoplasma without any cultured representatives were found. The coverage of all the samples was 97.2%. The relative abundance of the clones approximated a lognormal distribution; however, the phylotypes detected and their abundance varied between two libraries from the same sample. The results document that the intestinal microbial community is very complex and that the majority of the bacterial species colonizing the gastrointestinal tract in pigs have not been characterized.

Acute health problems in industrial production of swine and possible solutions

The main characteristic of swine herds in the territory of the Republic of Serbia is an unsatisfactory health status accompanied by increased incidence of contagious parasitic, genetic and other disorders. All this is a consequence of long-term unfavorable production conditions (maintenance of animals, diet, treatment, prevention, etc), which to a large extent altered the course and outcome of the mentioned diseases, and which had direct impact on the parameters which determine the health status of animals in a population. The health status of swine populations in our country are mostly determined by the presence of swine plague, but also diseases of pluricausal character, such as coli in fections, actinobdjcillosis, atrophic rhinitis dysentery, and others. One must also not forget the presence of diseases which can be maintained in herds for a long time as enzootic diseases (Aujeszkyi, leptospirosis, tuberculosis, etc). Among parasitic diseases trichinellosis deserves special attention since it endangers the health of humans more and more every day. Most of the mentioned diseases are exhibited in very different clinical forms, so that their timely detection is very difficult and their control complex. That is why swine production in our country is characterized by a low percentage of fertilization, small number of live and large number of still-born piglets, and a high level of mortality in all categories. A logical consequence of this is a small number of produced porkers per sow, mostly of poor quality. In conditions where there are many diseases of different etiology, their control is complex and consequences always connected to a reduction or complete annulment of the expected benefits from an animal of high genetic potential veterinary-medical protection must cede its place to health protection as a technology which is based on a policy of disease prevention. This implies the establishment and maintenance of a high health status in swine herds with a clear definition of special criteria for elite, reproductive and production herds. The mentioned concept requires a well-prepared, organized and equipped veterinary service, in which relations are adequately coordinated and tasks are well distributed among experts on farms, in specialized institutions, faculties, and inspection services.

Incidence of health disorders in dairy farming systems in western France

Incidence of health disorders was described in 205 dairy farms in Pays de la Loire (France) in 1995/97 and compared between farming systems. Cases recorded by farmers with standard definitions were checked every month during 2 years. Incidences varied widely between herds. Median and mean values were, respectively, in cases per 100 cow-years, 40.2 and 44.1 for clinical mastitis (5.7 and 7.1 systemic mastitis), 7.6 and 10.9 for locomotor disorders, 3.3 and 5.1 for digestive disorders, and, in cases per 100 calvings, 8.1 and 8.8 for retained placenta, 5.2 and 6.6 for dystocia, 4.9 and 5.6 for milk fever, 1.9 and 5.1 for chronic metritis; somatic cell counts exceeded 200 000 cells/ml in 26.6% monthly test-days, d to first artificial insemination (AI) exceeded 90 days postpartum in 25.4% of first AI, and of total AI return rate was 50.4%. In 28% of the herds, health status was characterised by low incidences for all disorders, whereas 10% had high incidences for most disorders, 21% for several peripartum disorders or chronic metritis, 14% for retained placenta and locomotor disorders, 15% for milk fever only and 11% for mastitis only. Incidences varied widely within all farming systems. In each system, every category of herd-health status was present, and more than 20% of the farms had a low-incidence status. Little variation was associated with size of the dairy unit or dairy specialisation of the farm. Non-Holstein herds had less clinical mastitis, better reproductive performance and more dystocia than Holstein herds. Among Holstein systems, clinical mastitis were more frequent in farming systems with highest than with lowest intensification of the dairy production, whereas high somatic cell counts were less frequent. The most intensive group had the highest median incidence for nine out of 14 cow disorders. Variations were higher within than between farming systems.

Swine Influenza Surveillance and the Impact of Human Influenza Epidemics on Pig Herds in the Czech Republic

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