Herald Of Free Enterprise Disaster Research Articles

Goal Setting and the Emergence of the Safety-Efficiency Trade-off in Organizations

This article aims to shed light on the trade-off between safety and efficiency that arises in organizations when management sets overly demanding efficiency goals. To explore the dynamics and relationships between management's goal setting and the safety-efficiency trade-off, we have chosen to analyze the extreme and illustrative case of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster – a ferry that sank on March 6, 1987, resulting in the deaths of 193 passengers and crew members. The case shows how the management's imposition of very tight schedules for embarkation and disembarkation operations at the port of Zeebrugge promoted the emergence of risky practices, namely the regular violation of procedures by the crew. We argue that these violations, aimed at increasing the speed of operations to meet the time goals, were a central factor, though not the only one, in the etiology of the accident. The case provides evidence that when management sets overly strict performance goals, it directs employees' attention and efforts toward efficiency at the expense of safety. As a result, safety is compromised, leading to an increased risk of incidents, which can harm employees' health and cause economic and legal damage to the organization.

A Human and Organisational Factors (HOFs) analysis method for marine casualties using HFACS-Maritime Accidents (HFACS-MA)

A dedicated Human and Organisational Factors (HOFs) framework for maritime accidents investigation and analysis is developed in this paper. A prototype of the framework is proposed and named as Human Factors Analysis and Classification System for Maritime Accidents (HFACS-MA). There are five levels in the framework which is in line with the core concepts of HFACS, Reason’s Swiss Cheese Model and Hawkins’ SHEL model. The framework also complies with the International Maritime Organization (IMO) guidelines. In addition to the framework, the proposed method integrates the HFACS-MA with a Why-Because Graph for accidents analysis providing a complement measure using HFACS. A case study regarding the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster demonstrates the proposed method and shows how a comprehensive insight into the accident can be gained via the integration of the analysis results as a complement to the HFACS analytical results. Several advantages that the framework provides for accident analysis are elaborated. Finally some considerations, including the further work, associated with the HFACS-MA are discussed and concluded in this paper.

The accident of m/v Herald of Free Enterprise

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate whether the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster was due to the ship or the management, using the modern management theory of complexity.Design/methodology/approachThe 75 pages investigation of the court has been studied and codified to the main aspects and mistakes producing the accident. After the mistakes were identified, a procedure adopted in analysis B to show how these could be avoided if a different management theory has been adopted.FindingsThe main finding was that management was responsible for the accident on shore mainly and on board and that a special communication mean which is called “dialogue” in complexity theory parlance had to be adopted.Practical implicationsAny shipping company and ship can identify itself through the common mistakes mentioned and adopt the proposed theory to improve safety and management's effectiveness.Originality/valueThe paper provides a concise analysis of the accident. A new theory is presented and linked to this case study. The study will be useful to management on shore and on board and for IMO of Flag administrations and departments of transport and others.

The balanced company: a theory of corporate integrity

The Balanced Company provides a coherent overview of the most important theories and insights in the field of business ethics and corporate social responsibility. This is an area of growing concern for corporations today - many have Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) personnel and use ethical codes in areas such as performance appraisals, staff induction programmes, supplier contracts, and so forth. Corporations are driven by more than a sense of ethical duty and idealism, however. There is clear evidence that the implementation of ethical codes can help to minimize legal fees, improve staff morale, ward off bad press, improve public image, empower stakeholders, and boost profits. But what of the situations where ethical decisions come at the cost of profits? Accessible and up-to-date, The Balanced Company presents criteria that can be used to measure, assess, improve, and report on corporate integrity. Tailoring the main ethical theories to the situations in which organizations function, the book also provides in-depth case studies at the end of each chapter. These include coverage of Shell, KPN Telecom, and the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster amongst others. Part I describes the rise of business ethics in practice. General misconceptions about the field are discussed and a summary of common ethical theories is presented. It concludes with a discussion of the concept of integrity. Part II provides the theoretical foundation for the ethics of business and discusses the question of whether the notion of integrity is applicable to organizations and whether an organization can be viewed as an autonomous entity. Part III formulates practical applications based on the preceding analyses and arguments. For academics, this book sets out a unique framework for the development of theories and critieria; for students, it provides a clear explanation of business ethics, sustainable development, and compliance; and for managers, it presents a practical framework that can be used to develop their organization. The Balanced Company will be widely used on courses and training programmes in corporate social responsibility and business ethics. The book is supported by a website containing further information about the cases and questions for discussion (www.ethicsmanagement.org).

The Herald of Free Enterprise Disaster

A substantial body of data has been collected on survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster over the first 6 years. These data show the psychological effects to be considerable, and although they appear to decrease over time, 6 years later there remains a substantial minority that remains highly distressed. Our research has also pointed to those factors that appear to be important in determining the severity and chronicity of symptoms. Levels of crisis support early on seem to be protective. Not everyone has access to supportive others, and these people would seem to be at increased risk of disturbance. But even if crisis support is potentially available from family and friends, not everyone is in a position to draw on these resources. Those individuals who possess negative attitudes toward emotional expression might be less likely to seek out support. Evidence would suggest that modifying such attitudes might be an important component of intervention. A further target for intervention would seem to be the causal attributions made by survivors. It was found that those who perceived the causes of events during the disaster as internal and controllable were at greatest risk of psychological disturbance. The data gathered in the wake of this disaster suggest that intervening early with respect to these three components (crisis support, attitude to emotional expression, and attributional style) is highly likely to mitigate against long-term distress.

Impulsivity and post-traumatic stress

Although it has been predicted from the compulsive reexposure hypothesis that PTSD is positively associated with sensation seeking, empirical data do not support this hypothesis but suggest that PTSD may actually be associated with lower sensation seeking. In an attempt to resolve the confusion over the association between sensation seeking and PTSD, we investigated the association between PTSD and scores on the Impulsivity questionnaire (I 7: Eysenck, Pearson, Easting & Allsopp, 1985) in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. The I 7 makes a distinction between two components of impulsivity: Impulsiveness and Venturesomeness. Impulsiveness is regarded as the pathological aspect of risk taking behaviour. People high on Impulsiveness exhibit less awareness of the future consequences of their activities. Venturesomeness, on the other hand, refers to risk taking behaviour in the knowledge that there is a risk involved. Although no significant difference was found between high and low PTSD symptom survivors on Venturesomeness, high PTSD symptom survivors scored higher on Impulsiveness than low PTSD symptom survivors providing support for the compulsive reexposure hypothesis.

Attitudes towards emotional expression and post-traumatic stress in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster.

The relationship between self-reported attitudes towards emotional expression, assessed at three years after the accident, and post-traumatic symptoms, assessed at five years after the accident, was investigated in 37 survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. It was found that lower scores on the attitudes towards emotional expression scale, indicating more negative attitudes (e.g. 'I think getting emotional is a sign of weakness') were associated with higher symptom scores. This association remained even when retrospectively assessed perceptions of helplessness during the disaster and symptoms assessed at three years were partialled out. Implications for therapeutic intervention are discussed.

Crisis support following the Herald of Free-Enterprise disaster: a longitudinal perspective.

Crisis support was assessed with survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise ferry sinking at 3 and 6 years postdisaster. It was found that reported levels of support received from family and friends decreased over the first 3 years after the event but increased over the subsequent 3 years. In addition, higher retrospective ratings of crisis support received in the immediate aftermath of the disaster were found to predict lower levels of posttraumatic symptomatology as assessed by the Impact of Event Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory at a later period. The results replicate earlier findings following the Jupiter Cruise ship disaster and are thought to have implications for the assessment and treatment of survivors at high risk of disturbance.

Chronic emotional processing in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: the relationship of intrusion and avoidance at 3 years to distress at 5 years

Thirty-seven survivors completed the Impact of Event Scale (IES), a measure of intrusive and avoidant activity, at around 3 yr following the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between scores on the IES to scores on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory (STAI-Y1) at around 5 yr subsequent to the event. Higher scores on the IES were able to predict higher scores on the BDI and the STAI-Y1 over and above scores on the 28-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) which was also administered at around 3 yr on from the event. Implications for cognitive-behaviour therapy are discussed.

Correlates of post-traumatic stress at 30 months: the herald of free enterprise disaster

Although exposure to a traumatic event is thought to be the main aetiological factor in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder, there remain large unexplained individual differences in the severity and chronicity of symptoms. The aim of the present study was to assess the relative contribution of a number of social and psychological factors which are thought to determine symptoms. Crisis support and life-events subsequent to the disaster are the two best predictors of general psychological well-being, whereas a sense of helplessness during the disaster and bereavement are the two best predictors of intrusive symptomatology.

The Herald of free enterprise disaster: the relationship of intrusion and avoidance to subsequent depression and anxiety

Twenty-five survivors completed the Impact of Events Scale, a measure of intrusive reexperiencing and avoidant behaviour, approx. 7 months following the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship of scores on these scales to scores on the Beck Depression Inventory and the Spielberger State Anxiety Inventory at approx. 19 months subsequent to the event. Greater intrusive reexperiencing was found to be associated with greater depression and anxiety over and above the intensity of exposure and the fact of bereavement. These data are discussed with reference to a cognitive processing model of post-traumatic stress.

The Herald of Free Enterprise disaster: measuring post-traumatic symptoms 30 months on.

The aim of the present study was to explore the psychometric properties of the Impact of Events Scale. Evidence is presented that the scale is composed of two major factors tapping intrusion and avoidance which are associated with greater psychological distress.

Peripheral victims of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster

We report on an unexpected phenomenon following the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. A series of cross-channel ferry workers referred by their GPs to the Folkestone Mental Health Team, during the three years after the disaster, presented with post-traumatic stress disorder, despite having no direct contact with the disaster as survivors, bereaved relatives or helpers. A retrospective case study is described of 14 ferry crew members presenting with PTSD. Thirteen completed the GHQ60. Evidence is presented of severe functional impairment in this group. It is argued that these subjects are indirect victims of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. Ways in which the 'ripples outward' of a major marine accident might extend to such peripheral victims are discussed.

Increased substance use in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster

Cross-sectional data are reported on 73 survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise disaster. Many reported an increase in their consumption of alcohol, cigarettes, sleeping tablets, antidepressants and tranquillizers at six and 30 months. The level of increased use was, however, lower at 30 months than at six months, although this was less evident for alcohol and cigarettes than the other substances. In addition, self-reports of increased substance use are associated with higher levels of psychological distress as measured by the General Health Questionnaire and the Impact of Events Scale. It is suggested that substance use might help to maintain subsequent psychological distress.

Causal Attributions and Psychiatric Symptoms in Survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise Disaster

The aim of the present study was to explore the relationship between causal attributions and psychiatric symptoms in those who survived the capsizing of the Herald of Free Enterprise ferry, two years following the disaster. Internal and controllable attributions for disaster-related experience are strongly related to poorer psychological outcome.