Helix-helix Interface Research Articles

Transmembrane Domain Helix Packing Stabilizes Integrin αIIbβ3 in the Low Affinity State

Regulated changes in the affinity of integrin adhesion receptors ("activation") play an important role in numerous biological functions including hemostasis, the immune response, and cell migration. Physiological integrin activation is the result of conformational changes in the extracellular domain initiated by the binding of cytoplasmic proteins to integrin cytoplasmic domains. The conformational changes in the extracellular domain are likely caused by disruption of intersubunit interactions between the alpha and beta transmembrane (TM) and cytoplasmic domains. Here, we reasoned that mutation of residues contributing to alpha/beta interactions that stabilize the low affinity state should lead to integrin activation. Thus, we subjected the entire intracellular domain of the beta3 integrin subunit to unbiased random mutagenesis and selected it for activated mutants. 25 unique activating mutations were identified in the TM and membrane-proximal cytoplasmic domain. In contrast, no activating mutations were identified in the more distal cytoplasmic tail, suggesting that this region is dispensable for the maintenance of the inactive state. Among the 13 novel TM domain mutations that lead to integrin activation were several informative point mutations that, in combination with computational modeling, suggested the existence of a specific TM helix-helix packing interface that maintains the low affinity state. The interactions predicted by the model were used to identify additional activating mutations in both the alpha and beta TM domains. Therefore, we propose that helical packing of the alpha and beta TM domains forms a clasp that regulates integrin activation.

Pivotal role of the glycine-rich TM3 helix in gating the MscS mechanosensitive channel

The crystal structure of an open form of the Escherichia coli MscS mechanosensitive channel was recently solved. However, the conformation of the closed state and the gating transition remain uncharacterized. The pore-lining transmembrane helix contains a conserved glycine- and alanine-rich motif that forms a helix-helix interface. We show that introducing 'knobs' on the smooth glycine face by replacing glycine with alanine, and substituting conserved alanines with larger residues, increases the pressure required for gating. Creation of a glycine-glycine interface lowers activation pressure. The importance of residues Gly104, Ala106 and Gly108, which flank the hydrophobic seal, is demonstrated. A new structural model is proposed for the closed-to-open transition that involves rotation and tilt of the pore-lining helices. Introduction of glycine at Ala106 validated this model by acting as a powerful suppressor of defects seen with mutations at Gly104 and Gly108.

Complex Interactions at the Helix–Helix Interface Stabilize the Glycophorin A Transmembrane Dimer

To explore the residue interactions in the glycophorin A dimerization motif, an alanine scan double mutant analysis at the helix-helix interface was carried out. These data reveal a combination of additive and coupled effects. The majority of the double mutants are found to be equally or slightly more stable than would be predicted by the sum of the energetic cost of the single-point mutants. The proximity of the mutated sites is not related to the presence of coupling between those sites. Previous studies reveal that a single face of the glycophorin A monomer contains a specific glycine-containing motif (GxxxG) that is thought to be a driving force for the association of transmembrane helices. Double mutant cycles suggest that the relationship of the GxxxG motif to the remainder of the helix-helix interface is complex. Sequences containing mutations that abolish the GxxxG motif retain an ability to dimerize, while a sequence containing a GxxxG motif appears unable to form dimers. The energetic effects of weakly coupled and additive double mutants can be explained by changes in van der Waals interactions at the dimer interface. These results emphasize the fact that the sequence context of the dimer interface modulates the strength of the glycophorin A GxxxG-mediated transmembrane dimerization reaction.

Structural model for an AxxxG‐mediated dimer of surfactant‐associated protein C

The pulmonary surfactant prevents alveolar collapse and is required for normal pulmonary function. One of the important components of the surfactant besides phospholipids is surfactant-associated protein C (SP-C). SP-C shows complex oligomerization behavior and a transition to beta-amyloid-like fibril structures, which are not yet fully understood. Besides this nonspecific oligomerization, MS and chemical cross-linking data combined with CD spectra provide evidence of a specific, mainly alpha-helical, dimer at low to neutral pH. Furthermore, resistance to CNBr cleavage and dual NMR resonances of porcine and human recombinant SP-C with Met32 replaced by isoleucine point to a dimerization site located at the C-terminus of the hydrophobic alpha-helix of SP-C, where a strictly conserved heptapeptide sequence is found. Computational docking of two SP-C helices, described here, reveals a dimer with a helix-helix interface that strikingly resembles that of glycophorin A and is mediated by an AxxxG motif similar to the experimentally determined GxxxG pattern of glycophorin A. It is highly likely that mature SP-C adopts such a dimeric structure in the lamellar bilayer systems found in the surfactant. Dimerization has been shown in previous studies to have a role in sorting and trafficking of SP-C and may also be important to the surfactant function of this protein.

Synaptobrevin transmembrane domain dimerization-revisited.

Synaptobrevin is a membrane-spanning soluble N-ethyl maleimid-sensitive factor (NSF) attachment protein receptor (SNARE) protein of synaptic vesicles that is essential for neurotransmitter release. Various lines of evidence indicate that it exists alternatively as a monomer, as a homodimer, as a heterodimer with synaptophysin, or as a ternary complex with other SNAREs at the various stages of the synaptic vesicle cycle. Homodimerization of synaptobrevin was previously shown by different authors to depend on its single transmembrane segment, and the crucial residues forming the helix-helix interface have been mapped. Since another recent study challenged these results, we reinvestigated this issue. Here, we show that native synaptobrevin can be cross-linked in synaptic vesicle membranes to a homodimer by disulfide bond formation between cysteine residues of the transmembrane segment. Further, we demonstrate that determination of synaptobrevin transmembrane segment interactions in membranes or in detergent solution requires careful control of experimental conditions. Thus, our present results corroborate that homodimerization of synaptobrevin is mediated by its transmembrane segment.

Role of helix-helix interactions in assembly of the bacteriorhodopsin lattice.

The purple membrane of Halobacterium salinarium is a two-dimensional lattice of lipids and the integral membrane protein bacteriorhodopsin (BR). To determine whether helix-helix interactions within the membrane core stabilize this complex, we substituted amino acid residues at the helix-helix interface between BR monomers and examined the assembly of the protein into the lattice. Lattice assembly was demonstrated to fit a cooperative self-assembly model that exhibits a critical concentration in vivo. Using this model as the basis for a quantitative assay of lattice stability, bulky substitutions at the helix-helix interface between BR monomers within the membrane core were shown to be destabilizing, probably due to steric clash. Ala substitutions of two residues at the helix-helix interface also reduced stability, suggesting that the side chains of these residues participate in favorable van der Waals packing interactions. However, the stabilizing interactions were restricted to a small region of the interface, and most of the substitutions had little effect. Thus, the contribution of helix-helix interactions to lattice stability appears limited, and favorable interactions between other regions of neighboring BR monomers or between BR and lipid molecules must also contribute.

Dimer models for ErbB-2/neu transmembrane domains from molecular dynamics simulations

Interest in the transmembrane receptors tyrosine kinase of the erbB family is high due to the involvement of some of the members in human cancers. The original oncogenic alleles of neu discovered in rat neuroectodermal tumors lead to single Val664Glu substitution within the predicted transmembrane domain. Identical substitution at the homologous position 659 constitutively activates the oncogenic potential of the human ErbB-2 receptor by enhanced receptor dimer formation. The precise molecular details of receptor dimerization are still unknown and to acquire more knowledge of the mechanisms involved, molecular dynamics simulations are undertaken to study transmembrane dimer association. Transmembrane helices are predicted to associate in left-handed coiled-coil structures stabilized by Glu-Glu interhelix hydrogen bonds in the mutated form. The internal dynamics reveals π helix deformations which modify the helix-helix interface. Predicted models agree with those suggested from polarized IR and magic-angle spinning NMR spectroscopy.

Helix-helix packing in a membrane-like environment

The unique ability of the glycophorin A transmembrane helix to dimerize in SDS has previously been exploited in studies of the sequence specificity of helix-helix packing in a micellar environment. Here, we have made different insertion mutants in the critical helix-helix interface segment, and find that efficient dimerization can be mediated by a wider range of sequence motifs than suggested by the earlier studies. We also show that certain mutants that are unable to dimerize can nevertheless form relatively high amounts of tetramers, and that specific tetramerization can be induced by duplication of the critical interface motif on the lipid-exposed side of the transmembrane helix.

Protein minimization: downsizing through mutation.

Protein minimization: downsizing through mutation.

Side chain packing of the N- and C-terminal helices plays a critical role in the kinetics of cytochrome c folding.

The pairing of two alpha-helices at opposite ends of the chain is a highly conserved structural motif found throughout the cytochrome c family of proteins. It has previously been shown that association of the N- and C-terminal helices is a critical early event in the folding process of horse cytochrome c and is responsible for the formation of a partially folded intermediate (INC). In order to gain further insight into the structural and energetic basis of helix packing interactions and their role in folding, we prepared a series of horse cytochrome c variants in which Leu94, a critical residue at the helix contact site, was replaced by Ile, Val, or Ala. The Ile and Val substitutions resulted in minor changes in the stability of the native state, indicating that conservative mutations can be accommodated at the helix interface with only minor structural perturbations. In contrast, the L94A mutation resulted in a 3.5 kcal/mol decrease in unfolding free energy, suggesting that the smaller Ala side chain causes severe packing defects at the helix interface. The effect of these mutations on the kinetics of folding and unfolding as a function of denaturant concentration was studied by a systematic series of stopped-flow fluorescence measurements. The proteins with Leu, Ile, or Val at position 94 exhibit a major unresolved fluorescence change during the 1-ms dead time of the stopped-flow refolding measurements, while this effect is less pronounced in L94A, indicating that the rapid formation of a compact state (IC) with largely quenched Trp59 fluorescence is favored by a large hydrophobic side chain at the helix-helix interface. Despite their small effects on overall stability, the L94I and L94V mutations result in a substantial reduction in the relative amplitude of the fastest observable folding phase (formation of INC) consistent with a strong decrease in the population of INC compared to the wild-type protein. This effect is amplified in the case of the destabilizing L94A variant, which exhibits slower folding kinetics and negligible accumulation of INC. Whereas the presence of a large hydrophobic side chain at position 94 is sufficient for the stabilization of IC, the subsequent partially folded intermediate, INC, is stabilized by specific interactions that are responsible for the proper packing of the two alpha-helices.

Thermodynamics of coaxially stacked helixes with GA and CC mismatches.

The thermodynamics of RNA helix-helix interfaces with intervening single- and tandem-GA or single-CC mismatches were studied by UV melting experiments. The model system consists of a hairpin with a four- or five-nucleotide 5' overhang which is bound by a short oligomer, creating the helical interface. Single GA interfaces are found to have favorable free energy increments of about 2 kcal/mol. This is similar to those reported for coaxially stacked flush interfaces of AU base pairs [Walter A. E., & Turner, D. H. (1994) Biochemistry 33, 12715-12719]. The free energy increment of the GA mismatches depends little on the sequence of the closing base pairs of the helixes, whether the break in the phosphate backbone is 5' or 3' with respect to the mismatch or whether the chains are extended beyond the helix-helix interface. Surprisingly, interfaces with single-CC mismatches have favorable free energy increments similar to those of GA interfaces, even though CC mismatches in coaxial stacks occur much less frequently in known RNA secondary structures. The results provide experimental support for the assumption that a bonus free energy is required for coaxially stacked helixes with intervening GA mismatches when free energy minimization is used to predict RNA secondary structures.

The stability of tropomyosin, a two-stranded coiled-coil protein, is primarily a function of the hydrophobicity of residues at the helix-helix interface.

The sequences of coiled coils are characterized by a repeating heptad of amino acids, abcdefg, in which the a and d residues are generally hydrophobic and form the interface between the two alpha-helices. In this study, rat and chicken alpha-tropomyosins (alpha-TMs) have been used as models to determine whether the effects of mutations on the stability of two-stranded coiled coils can be predicted by a simple algorithm. The thermal stabilities of three wild-type muscle alpha-TMs and nine chimeras, in which the second and/or sixth or ninth coding exons of one alpha-TM cDNA were replaced with exons from other alpha-TM cDNAs, with a sequence encoding the GCN4 leucine zipper or a random coil sequence, have been obtained using circular dichroism spectroscopy. Tropomyosin is almost completely helical along its entire length, but there is no correlation of the thermal stability of the alpha-TMs with the helical propensity of their component amino acids. The stability can be predicted (P = 0.90), however, by assigning a weight to every amino acid residue in each sequence, depending on its frequency of occurrence at the abcdef or g position in a data base of coiled-coil fibrous proteins, and summing all the weights. The correlation improves if only the residues at the a and d interface are counted (P = 0.94). The major factor modulating the thermal stability appears to be the hydrophobicity of the residues at the coiled-coil interface, since there is a high correlation (P = 0.91) of the TM values with the sum of the hydrophobic moments of the residues found at the a and d positions.

Crystal Structure of the Tetramerization Domain of the p53 Tumor Suppressor at 1.7 Angstroms

The p53 protein is a tetrameric transcription factor that plays a central role in the prevention of neoplastic transformation. Oligomerization appears to be essential for the tumor suppressing activity of p53 because oligomerization-deficient p53 mutants cannot suppress the growth of carcinoma cell lines. The crystal structure of the tetramerization domain of p53 (residues 325 to 356) was determined at 1.7 angstrom resolution and refined to a crystallographic R factor of 19.2 percent. The monomer, which consists of a beta strand and an alpha helix, associates with a second monomer across an antiparallel beta sheet and an antiparallel helix-helix interface to form a dimer. Two of these dimers associate across a second and distinct parallel helix-helix interface to form the tetramer.

Sequence dependence of stability for coaxial stacking of RNA helixes with Watson-Crick base paired interfaces.

Thermodynamic parameters from UV melting studies are reported for the helix-helix interfaces of coaxially stacked helixes in RNA. The model system consists of a short oligomer binding to a four-nucleotide overhang at the end of a hairpin stem, creating the helix-helix interface. Interfaces containing Watson-Crick base pairs are approximately 1 kcal/mol more stable than the corresponding nearest neighbor interaction in an uninterrupted helix. Thus the sequence dependence of stability for coaxially stacked interfaces is similar to that for regular helixes. This provides experimental evidence for an assumption that has been shown to improve predictions of RNA secondary structure [Walter, A. E., Turner, D. H., Kim, J., Lyttle, M. H., Muller, P., Mathews, D. H., & Zuker, M. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. (in press)]. The results should also be useful for modeling three-dimensional structures of RNA.

Four helix bundle diversity in globular proteins

Four helix.bundles are a common structural motif that can be observed both independently and as components of larger folding units. We examined 221 globular proteins of known structure for possible four helix bundles. Previous computational studies of four helix bundles have placed arbitrary restrictions on interhelical packing angles. In this study we develop a geometric definition of four helix bundles based in part on solvent accessibility criteria that permits the removal of constraints on interhelical packing. Based on the observed pattern of interhelical angles, a bundle taxonomy is presented. This formalism should provide a useful categorization method for future structural studies of proteins rich in αa-helices. The helix-helix interactions within bundles were studied in detail. Central residues, contact normals, and skew angles all were observed to have non-random distributions. A simple geometric model was developed for the helix-helix interface to explain these findings. Analysis of the helix-helix interaction data collected in this work confirms the importance of including skew angles in models of helix packing, and should improve the accuracy of combinatorial strategies for the prediction of the tertiary structure of all-helical proteins. Additionally, the geometric properties observed in globular proteins provide insight into the structural organization of membrane spanning proteins.

Exploring the interface between the N- and C-terminal helices of cytochrome c by random mutagenesis within the C-terminal helix.

Buried within cytochrome c lies a highly-conserved helix-helix interface formed by the perpendicular packing of the C-terminal helix against the N-terminal helix. This interface involves a peg-in-hole interaction between Gly-6 and Leu-94 and an aromatic-aromatic interaction between Phe-10 and Tyr-97. To gain insight into protein design, we investigated the relationship between the sequence of the interface and the physiological function of yeast iso-1-cytochrome c. A library of mutants at positions 94 and 97 of the C-terminal helix was created to examine the effect of novel amino acid combinations. We isolated 45 of the 400 possible amino acid combinations, 32 of which result in a functional cytochrome c. Contrary to evolutionary conservation of the peg-in-hole and aromatic-aromatic interactions, we find that side-chain volume and conservation of aromatic residues do not play an essential role in determining function. Additionally, we find negatively-charged residues within the interface that result in a functional cytochrome c. Examination of the 45 missense mutants indicates that approximately 120 unique combinations are compatible with function. These results show that the interface is flexible. However, truncation of the C-terminal helix at position 94 abolishes function, suggesting that the interface is essential. The correlation observed between our library of mutants and the mutation matrix compiled by Gonnet et al. [Gonnet, G. H., Cohen, M. A., & Benner, S. A. (1992) Science 256, 1443-1445] demonstrates the potential use of the matrix to predict the effect of sequence changes on natural proteins and to optimize the design of novel proteins.

α‐Helix to random‐coil transitions of two‐chain coiled coils: The use of physical models in treating thermal denaturation equilibria of isolated subsequences of αα‐tropomyosin

Two extant models of thermal folding/unfolding equilibria in two-chain, alpha-helical coiled coils are tested by comparison with experimental results on excised, isolated subsequences of rabbit alpha alpha-tropomyosin (Tm). These substances are designated iTmj where i and j are, respectively, the residue numbers (in the 284-residue parent chain) of the N- and C-terminal residues of the subsequence. One model postulates that a coiled coil consists of segments, each denaturing in an all-or-none manner, like small globular proteins. Thus this model yields a small number of populated molecular species. In an extant calorimetry study of 11Tm127 and of 190Tm284, each required only two all-or-none-segments, and their enthalpies and transition temperatures were assigned. These assignments are shown here to yield the concentration of all molecular species, and therefore the helix content, as a function of temperature. Such calculations for 190Tm284 are in tolerable agreement with CD experiments, but those for 11Tm127 are in gross disagreement. Thus, either the model itself or the calorimetric assignment is faculty. In the second model, all conformational states are counted and weighted, as in the Zimm-Bragg theory for single-chain polypeptides. This theory has been extended (by Skolnick) to two-chain coiled coils and is here used to fit CD data for 11Tm127, 142Tm281, and 190Tm284. The fit is tolerable for 11Tm127, good for 142Tm281, and quantitative for 190Tm284. Thus this comparison does not falsify this second model. The helix-helix interaction free energy, obtainable from the fit, shows nonadditivity when isolated subsequences are compared with the parent. This suggests that removal of a region from a long coiled coil allows energetically substantial adjustments in side-chain packing in the helix-helix interface. Thus, the helix-helix interaction in long coiled coils is characteristic of a global free energy minimum and not just of the regional constellation of side chains.

Use of site-directed mutagenesis to destabilize native apomyoglobin relative to folding intermediates.

Site-directed mutagenesis has been used to study the effect on the stability of human apomyoglobin (apoMb) of modifying the size, hydrophobicity, and charge of a central residue in the G.B helix-helix packing interface. Some stability measurements have also been made on the corresponding holomyoglobins (heme present). Cys-110, a central helix pairing residue in the G helix, has been changed to Ala, Ser, Asp, and Leu. Stability to low-pH-induced unfolding has been measured for both native apoMb and the compact folding intermediate discovered by Griko et al. [Griko, Y. V., Privalov, P. L., Venyaminov, S. Y., & Kutyshenko, V. P. (1988) J. Mol. Biol. 202, 127-138]. As judged by its circular dichroism spectrum, this intermediate has a substantial helix content (about 35%). Whether or not this inferred helical structure is closely related to the myoglobin structure is not yet known. The mutational evidence shows that integrity of G.B helix pairing is important for the stability of apoMb as well as of myoglobin and that this helix pairing site is very sensitive to both steric and electrostatic disruption. Our results also suggest that G.B helix pairing does not stabilize the compact intermediate; hence, disrupting this site destabilizes the native protein relative to the compact intermediate. Such selective destabilization of the native state relative to equilibrium folding intermediates is not restricted to acid denaturation: urea denaturation of the Leu mutant appears to display at least one stable intermediate, while wild-type and the remaining mutant apoMbs undergo two-state urea unfolding transitions.