Hebrew Characters Research Articles

The Medieval Lapidary of Techel/Azareus on Engraved Stones and Its Jewish Appropriations

One of the most influential Christian lapidaries in medieval Europe was a composite text that combined fragments of several traditions concerning the powers of engraved stones. Here designated the “Techel/Azareus Complex,” this lapidary appears in different configurations in each manuscript, with varying combinations of both individual stones and of larger groupings of stones (“clusters”). Each of these clusters, which are intertwined in the manuscript tradition, has its own stylistic features and theoretical notions, suggesting that they may once have circulated as independent lapidaries. With an understanding of the Latin tradition and its particular fluidity, it becomes possible to recognize three Jewish texts, introduced and discussed here for the first time, that also form part of the textual history of the Complex . The first is a Hebrew translation that derives from an intermediate Anglo-Norman version. The second Hebrew text contains Castilian and Catalan terms; its complicated relationship to the Latin tradition suggests that it may have originated from similar sources, but independently. The third text, written in Italian in Hebrew characters, is remarkably similar to some of the Latin versions. Appendices provide a list of medieval Christian authors who cite the Complex , a bibliography of modern printed editions of this lapidary, a list of Anglo-Norman terms found in the manuscripts of the first Hebrew version, and a preliminary list of manuscripts.

Planetary Velocities and the Astrological Month

IntroductionIn 1994, together with Jose Luis Mancha, we published an article on a medieval table for the unequal of the planets, i.e., planetary velocity. In some manuscripts this table had a column headed Dieta lunae in circulo signorum, that is, Daily of the Moon on the zodiacal circle. In contrast to the other columns, the entries in this column made no sense astronomically, for here the lunar motion is 13;53°, which does not correspond to any physical of the Moon.1 In 2003 we published the same table of planetary velocities, based on many manuscripts and printed editions in addition to those we had identified when we wrote the article of 1994, but we still did not understand the rationale for this particular column of numbers.2 In 2012, however, we were finally able to identify the astrological context for this column of numbers without understanding all the details, but we did determine many of its key features and its astrological purpose.3 We can now add that the entries in the column of numbers for lunar progress are unrelated to the Moon, that they make no sense without embedding them in their astrological context, and that they do not belong at all in an astronomical table for planetary velocities. In general, the entries in the relevant astrological tables containing this column for the daily progress are unreliable due to many copyists' errors, suggesting that medieval astrologers did not fully understand these tables or the way they are to be used. As we will see, the structure of these tables is simple enough: there is a base entry and subsequent entries are integer multiples of it. Although these tables are astrological, they also are included in some early editions of astronomical texts, notably the Parisian Alfonsine Tables.In Section 1 we begin with a reconstruction of these tables and their arithmetic structure, and in the following sections we consider the evidence from ancient, medieval, and early modern texts. We will not be concerned with the rules for making astrological judgements that take into account the numerical data. While we consider Arabic sources as background, we focus on the tradition in the West, based on the thirteenth-century versions in Castilian and Latin of Kitab al-baric, composed in Arabic by cAli Ibn Abi 1-Rijal (Kairouan, eleventh century). We will also refer to a Hebrew version of these tables by Abraham Bar Hiyya produced in Spain in the twelfth century, presumably derived from an Arabic source that has not been identified. In Section 2 we present Ptolemy's version of the relevant astrological doctrine. In Section 3 we discuss the tables and their traditions, paying close attention to early printed editions of astronomical and astrological texts in Latin as well as to a few manuscripts in Arabic and Hebrew (including one text in Hebrew characters, where the language is Judeo-Portuguese). In Section 4 we adduce non-tabular evidence for what we call the astrological month, including a quotation from Bar Hiyya's procedure for using these tables, for it is the clearest such description we have found. In Section 5 we distinguish this astrological doctrine from another astrological context, in which a few of the same key terms are found. Finally, we offer some conclusions, based on the evidence in the previous Sections. The Tables are displayed in the Appendix.1. ReconstructionThe astrological context for these tables has to do with anniversaries and judgements based on them. The radix is the date and time of a nativity, and we will call any subsequent date and time the anniversary, not necessarily an integer number of years after nativity. Judgements related to the anniversary concern the prediction of success or failure of individual enterprises, whereas the horoscope for the radix deals with more general issues in the life of an individual. For the radix the astrologer cast a horoscope; in particular, five items are needed at the radix, called hylegs:4 the position of the ascendant (the point on the ecliptic that is rising on the horizon at the radix), the position of the Sun, the position of the Moon, the lot of fortune,5 and the midheaven (the point on the ecliptic that is crossing the meridian above the horizon at the radix). …

“Their Eyes Shall Behold Strange Things”: Abraham Ben Elijah of Vilna encounters the Spirit of Mr. Buffon

The turn of the nineteenth century saw the publication of an abundance of travel narratives and texts in natural history written by maskilic Jews in Hebrew, Yiddish, and German in Hebrew characters. Several of these were maskilic translations of German children's books such as Georg Christian Raff'sNaturgeschichte für Kinderor Joachim Heinrich Campe's travel stories for children. Others were fragmentary translations of German science books such as Anton Friedrich Büsching'sNeue Erdbeschreibung. These translations were inspired by the maskilim's desire to acculturate their fellow Jews according to the standards of the European “high culture” of their time. The scientific, geographical, and philosophical knowledge offered by the source texts, combined with the rhetoric of voyage and discovery, as well as the stories of domesticating and acculturating “savage” peoples and wild animals, provided the maskilim with a compelling platform for disseminating maskilic knowledge, ideology, and goals.

Cristianismo y judaísmo en la vida de Abdías, el prosélito normando, a través de la profecía de Joel

In the Cairo Genizah were manuscripts with Gregorian notation and Hebrew script. They also appeared documents that point to author of the scores at Giovanni-Obadiah, a twelfth century Christian monk, born in southern Italy, who converted to Judaism. Until now, the study of this personage has been realized almost exclusively from the Jewish point of view. Nevertheless, like Obadiah synthesizes the traditions Christian and Jewish in its notation when copying Hebrew melodies with Christian notation, also it does in his texts. Obadiah transcribed a Latin appointment of Joel to Hebrew characters. This article pretends to oppose his conversion to Judaism with his ordination as a Christian monk through the prophecy of Joel, which implies an intense dialogue between the two traditions.

Vernacular Voices: Language and Identity in Medieval French Jewish Communities (review)

Reviewed by: Vernacular Voices: Language and Identity in Medieval French Jewish Communities Anna Sapir Abulafia Vernacular Voices: Language and Identity in Medieval French Jewish Communities, by Kirsten A. Fudeman. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010. 254 pp. $59.95. Recent books on the history of medieval Europe have paid increasing attention to non-Christian elements of society in an attempt to move away from a christo-centric interpretation of the Latin Middle Ages and to move towards [End Page 180] a subtler understanding of the many different components which forged medieval culture. At the same time students of medieval Jewish history are increasingly realizing the importance of interpreting their material within the full context of the history of the lands in which medieval Jews found themselves. Kirsten Fudeman's book is an excellent example of these new trends. Combining her expertise in medieval French literature and linguistics with her knowledge of medieval Hebrew, she has produced a work which brings to life the Jewish men, women, and children of northern France (Zarfat) as they communicated with each other, interacted with their Christian neighbors and negotiated their interests with the Christian lords under whose jurisdiction they fell. Fudeman examines the French used by medieval Jews in Zarfat in order to find out what it can teach us about the ways Jews thought about themselves and their environment in the twelfth to early fourteenth centuries. In the Introduction and Chapter One she explores the languages medieval French Jews used: Hebrew and Aramaic for learned and religious purposes; French for daily oral communication amongst themselves and with Christians. In Fudeman's terminology Hebrew was their father tongue, French their mother tongue. Women had far less access to Hebrew than men. Eschewing emotive judgments on the quality of Jewish versions of vernacular languages which have bedevilled the historiography of Yiddish, Fudeman avoids terms like Judeo-French. Very sensibly, Fudeman prefers the concept of a flexible Jewish register in spoken French which was adapted according to circumstance. With fellow Jews Jews could use Hebrew words for specifically Jewish terms; with Christians they would obviously have to adapt their vocabulary to be understood. Interesting is the linguistic evidence that Jewish use of French followed the same regional variations as Christian French. In Chapter Two Fudeman offers a close reading of the rich material concerning the massacre of around thirty Jews in Blois on a trumped-up ritual murder charge in 1171. This material is in Hebrew, but it clearly describes, assesses, and interprets conversations which took place in the vernacular between the Jews of Blois, between Jews of different communities, between Jews and Christian lords, including King Louis VII, and between Christians themselves. Here one sees clearly how Fudeman's linguistic expertise encourages a fresh approach to texts that have been studied so thoroughly by other scholars. Fudeman carefully decodes the interweaving biblical models later redactors of the material incorporated to uncover subtle variations of speech which were determined by place and circumstance. Particularly interesting is how she explores the voices of men and women and the arenas in which they were heard. Pucellina with her close connections to Count Theobald played an essential role in the drama; Countess Alix with her [End Page 181] strong anti-Jewish feelings was influential through her position as the wife of Theobald. But the arena of these women was private, not public. This is not to say this made them any less influential, but as Fudeman suggests it did make their role more transient, if only because it was through male manipulation of language that the texts describing the events were handed down to posterity. It seems that Jewish women in Zarfat did not possess good enough Hebrew to author scholarly or literary texts. Fudeman thinks they were, in fact, more at a disadvantage than their Christian counterparts in this respect. We lack Jewish examples in France to match the writings of women such as Marie de France and Heloise, just to name two of the most famous. The following two chapters are more technical. Chapter Three analyzes the extant examples of Hebraico-French, i.e,. French written in Hebrew characters. These texts are listed in Appendix One. Fudeman argues...

Una breve comedia sefardí: Las semanas de Pésaḥ

In this article we edit a short Judeo-Spanish play written in Hebrew characters by Aharon de Yosef Ḥaźan. It was performed in Izmir ca. 1883 and published later in Jerusalem in 1894. The text deals with the hard house-cleaning done by Sephardic women just after the feast of Purim in order to leave it suitable for Passover, according to the Jewish dietary laws. On the opposite side, this play shows the complaints of the husbands, who suffer for a month, the disturbance of their lives and primary habits.

Judaizing Robinson Crusoe: maskilic translations of Robinson Crusoe

At least seven ‘Jewish translations’ (in Hebrew, Yiddish and German in Hebrew characters) of Robinson Crusoe were published between 1784 and 1900. However, the Robinson story did not reach Jewish audiences in continental Europe in this period through Defoe’s original work or even close translations thereof, but rather through the reworking of the story as a didactic tractate by the German writer and pedagogue Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746–1818). This article examines the roundabout journey taken by Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe to reach the Jews of Europe and the reasons for the popularity of the Robinson story (according to Campe) among maskilim (Jewish enlighteners). It analyses the different translations published in the period, thereby following the development of the Robinson story as largely a tool by which the maskilim communicated moral and practical education to literary works which emphasized aesthetic quality.

"Since I have learned of these evil tidings, I have been heartsick and I am unable to sleep": The Old Yiddish and Hebrew Letters from 1476 in the Shadow of Blood Libels in Northern Italy and Germany

The blood libel against the Jews in Trent in 1475, the first of this kind in the Early Modern Times, which led to execution of all Jewish men of the city, caused an investigation initiated by Pope Sixtus IV. The court proceedings of the case, stored in the city archive of Trent for more than half a thousand years, include four private letters written in Hebrew characters, two in Old Yiddish and two in Hebrew. The letters were found in possession of a Catholic priest by the name of Paolo da Novara who was arrested following the blood libel, and initially meant to serve as evidence of his attempts to help the Jewish women imprisoned at Trent make contact with the outside world. Later da Novara was accused of trying to poison Bishop of Trent, Johannes Hinderbach. It seems that the case contains the oldest private letters in Old Yiddish known until the present. Albeit the very fact of their existence was known to researchers, they remained undeciphered, not analyzed and not contextualized. Being a good example of earliest texts in Yiddish in general and evoking a special interest as the earliest representation of a specific “epistolary genre” in particular, they are first of all a rare reflection of the Trent tragedy and some other contemporary blood libels from the Jewish inner perspective.

Hidden Secrets or the Mysteries of Daily Life. Hebrew Entries in the Journal Books of the Early Modern Astronomer Gottfried Kirch

Abstract In the astronomical journal books written in German of Gottfried Kirch (1639–1710), a Christian astronomer and publisher with close connections to Pietists, several entries in Hebrew script are striking. In fact, it is not Hebrew or Yiddish but German in Hebrew characters. There is no doubt that the transcription follows more or less an orthography known from Yiddish. Since the content of these entries is rather banal and reflects daily life, it is possible that they are nothing but a kind of scholarly joke, a private pleasure, and practice of scholarly skills. While these private notes were not capable of academic discourse, perhaps Kirch playfully tried to enhance their status by using an uncommon script in contrast to the astronomical data. In this way, it was possible to cover over the triviality of daily life by a veil of mystery by transcribing it in Hebrew characters.

Citas árabes en caracteres hebreos en el <i>Pugio Fidei</i> del dominico Ramón Martí: entre la autenticidad y la autoridad

This article presents and discusses the Arabic citations of Qurʼān and ḥadīṯ, written in Hebrew characters and translated into Latin, that are found in the Puggio Fidei (Dagger of Faith) of the Dominican polemicist Raymond Martini (d. after 1284). The citations are of great interest because they constitute the only example of Arabic-language citations in his work and offer us information about his sources and about the direct connection between his use of original languages and the rhetorical strategy of his polemical work.

К ИЗУЧЕНИЮ ВЕСЕННИХ МАКРОЧЕШУЕКРЫЛЫХ (INSECTA, LEPIDOPTERA, MACROHETEROCERA) НИЖНЕГО ПРИАМУРЬЯ: РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ 2011 ГОДА

42 species from Thyatiridae, Lasiocampidae, Endromididae, Saturniidae, Sphingidae, Notodontidae, Lymantriidae, Arctiidae, Noctuidae, were collected in the Lower Amur territory in May, 2011. 7 species were recorded from the territory for the first time. Northernmost distributional limits were found at Kiselevka for: Neodaruma tamanuki Mtsm., Shinploca shini Kim (Thyatiridae), Ellida branickii Obth., Ellida viridimixta Brem., Odontosia brinikhi Dubat. (Notodontidae), Euclidia dentata Stgr., Clavipalpula aurariae Obth., Xylopolia bellula Kononenko et L.Ronkay, Orthosia carnipennis Btl., Orthosia ella Btl., Orthosia incerta Hfn., Anorthoa munda Den. et Schiff., Harutaeographa stenoptera Stgr., Perigrapha hoenei Pngl., Cerastis leucographa Den. et Schiff. (Noctuidae). Two more species, Nola confusalis H.-S. and Orthosia gothica L. (Noctuidae), had been formerly known from the Amur River mouth.

Language Contact in Judea: How Much Aramaic is There in the Hebrew Documents from the Judean Desert?

Hebrew was spoken alongside Aramaic during the days of the Second Temple, and ceased to be spoken around the beginning of the third century C.E. Its status in the period between the destruction of the Second Temple and the Bar Kokhba revolt is a different matter, which can be solved with the aid of the Hebrew documents from the Judean Desert—mostly military letters and legal documents. A detailed philological investigation and a socio-linguistic inspection of this corpus reveal that it represents a living spoken Hebrew dialect, very close to Rabbinic Hebrew. Even though it was shadowed and influenced by Aramaic, it maintained its Hebrew character, both in speech and in writing.

From My Notebooks: <em>Materia Medica et Magica</em> from Animals, including a Long, Unknown Passage from al-Mas῾ūdī

Materia Medica et Magica from Animals, including a Long, Unknown Passage from al-Masʿūdī Y. Tzvi Langermann (bio) MS St Petersburg, Russian State Library Hebrew-Arabic I 2239 (IMHM F 55683, twenty-five folia) is a fragment of a longer work on the medical and magical uses of animals and their bodily parts. The language is Arabic, but the text is copied in Hebrew characters. There are no signs at all that the author was Jewish; this work thus appears to be one of many non-Jewish works written in Arabic that were transcribed into the Hebrew alphabet, especially in medicine and related fields.1 Two considerations in particular justify dedicating a note to this manuscript. First, texts belonging to the utilization of animal parts in medicine and magic have hardly been studied at all by historians of science. (Because some specimens are accompanied by beautiful illustrations, some manuscripts have been studied by art historians.) Second, the fragment we propose to describe contains a number of references to the famous historian and man of letters who flourished in the early tenth century, [End Page 169] ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn Alī al-Masʿūdī, including one very long citation, which we reproduce and translate below. As far as I have been able to determine, these passages are not known from any other source, and thus may preserve pieces from one of al-Masʿūdī’s lost writings, which are known to have been extensive.2 Some pages from II 877 were joined at some point in time to the manuscript classified as Hebrew-Arabic I 2239; presumably one of the Soviet era librarians correctly realized that they are part of the same text and put them together. The text is acephalous, but the end of the manuscript is the end of the text, though we cannot be sure if it is the end of the chapter or of the book. The final page ends about two lines higher than the others, and the last line has just a few words that are centered on the page; this is a usual graphic indication for the end of a chapter or a treatise. The manuscript is misbound; there is a long stretch of continuous text from 8a–18a, but otherwise, almost every folio is out of place. Some of the pages are damaged. It was owned once by a certain Shlomo (?) Cohen, who jotted down his name on f. 21a; and there is a marginalium, apparently a medical recipe, at the top of f. 20b. Several of the earliest writers on medicine and related fields in Arabic wrote extensive works on animals, covering their biology, the usefulness (manfaʿa/manāfiʿ) of their parts, including special properties, often occult or magical (khāṣṣa/khawāṣṣ) that particular organs were thought to possess. The genre has been covered by Manfred Ullmann with his usual precision and thoroughness; note in particular, that Ullmann knows of no citations from al-Masʿūdī on the magical uses of animals.3 I will take brief note here of the most relevant primary texts and scholarly articles that have been available to me for purposes of comparison in my quest to identify this text. One of the earliest and most famous of these was written by ʿUbayd Allāh ibn Jibrā’īl, scion of the famous Ibn Bakhtīshūʿ family, several of whom were prominent physicians to the early Abbasid caliphs. The full title of his book reveals the scope of topics covered: Kitāb Ḥayāt al-ḥayawān wa-ṭabāʿihi wa-khawāṣṣihi [End Page 170] wa-manāfiʿ mā fī aʿḍā’’ihi mimmā ṣannafahu al-ḥukamā’, “Book on the Life of Animals, their natures, special properties, and the usefulness of their parts, taken from what the scholars have recorded.”4 Abraham Yohannan prepared an English translation in 1917, but never published it.5 The same scholar contributed a short description of the beautifully illustrated copy (M 500, a Persian translation) deposited at the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York.6 More recently, Anna Contadini has written a very informative dissertation, still...

Left visual-field advantage in the dual-stream RSVP task and reading-direction: A study in three nations

In the dual-stream Rapid Serial Visual Presentation task, a stream of stimuli containing two target stimuli is rapidly presented left and right. In previous studies, the second target was better identified in the left than in the right hemifield. In all those studies, alphanumeric stimuli were used both as targets and distracters. We examined to what extent this left visual-field advantage is dependent on reading-direction. The task was performed by Germans (with Latin characters), Israelis (with Latin and Hebrew characters) and Taiwanese (with Latin and Chinese characters). If caused by overlearnt associative links between Latin characters and left-to-right reading, the prominent left visual-field bias should be reversed in Hebrew and disappear in Chinese. Furthermore, if caused by direction of reading in the participant's native language, the left visual-field advantage in Latin conditions should be larger in Germans than in Israelis and Taiwanese. A left visual-field advantage was always observed, though slightly smaller in Hebrew and in Chinese, and there was no difference in the Latin conditions between the three nations. Therefore, it seems that the left visual-field advantage in speeded target identification is not primarily caused by the left-to-right reading-direction, but may be a combined effect resulting from the asymmetric organization of general mechanisms of visual processing and from stimulus-induced preferences.

Ms. Parma Pal. 2666 as a Document of Sephardi Literary and Philosophical Expression in Fifteenth-Century Spain

The article presents a recently identified and studied manuscript, Ms. Pal. 2666 from the Palatine library of Parma which contains a miscellaneous collection of philosophical and literary texts in aljamiado script or Spanish but written in Hebrew characters. The collection of texts, dating from the middle of the fifteenth century including renderings of some important works of Medieval Spanish literature adds to our knowledge of Sephardic reading and writing on the eve of the expulsion. After providing a description of the manuscript, of its contents and organization, the article presents a case for a Sephardic readership and literature culture conversant with the literary trends in vogue in Spain at the time of the compilation of the collection.

Variation in larval chaetotaxy inOrthosia gothica(Lepidoptera: Noctuidae): effects of mother, sex and side, and implications for systematics

Abstract.Insect larval characteristics, including chaetotaxy, are used widely in systematics, including for classification and phylogenetic reconstruction. Despite their common use, basic aspects of larval morphology, including intraspecific variation, effects of relatedness between individuals, sex and asymmetry, are little investigated. In the larvae of the noctuid mothOrthosia gothica, properties of shape and size were separated to examine their effects separately. Siblings were found not to cover the entire variation of a population, and therefore specimens originating from a single female do not represent independent samples. This methodological bias may potentially lead to wrong conclusions regarding species characteristics. We observed slight differences between the left and right sides of the specimens studied, implying that one side should be examined consistently in studying larval chaetotaxy. We found no differences between sexes, but this may apply only to the species examined here; in general, sex should be determined and accounted for. We discovered considerable variation in seta numbers, which further emphasizes the importance of sufficient material, particularly in cladistic analyses in which setal counts are often used as characters.

The Introduction of Sergius of Reshlhringaina to Galen's Commentary on Hippocrates' On Nutriment

MS New York, Jewish Theological Seminary of America 2761, preserves an Arabic version in Hebrew characters of Galen's commentary to Hippocrates On foods, including an introduction by Sergius of Resh'ainā, who translated the Greek into Syriac. Neither this translation nor the introduction had been known to exist. The introduction, which follows the canonical eight-fold formula of accessores ad auctores, is an extremely rich document for the history of commentaries to scientific texts. Sergius' observations on the similarities in elusive writing between Hippocrates and Plato are particularly interesting.

Do top and bottom contribute to object perception more than left and right?

To examine whether the top-bottom axis has an inherent advantage in object perception over the left-right one, three experiments were conducted. In all of them, on each trial one of two alternative stimuli, identical in shape but opposite in direction (viz, related by reflection), was presented. Both reflection about the vertical axis and reflection about the horizontal axis were applied, in different blocks. In Experiment 1, objects with an orientation-free definition (arrows, incomplete squares) were presented. Subjects were to respond when the stimulus pointed in a specific direction, and to refrain from responding when it was reflected, namely pointed in the opposite direction. Axis of reflection (vertical, horizontal) was varied between blocks. In Experiment 2, the object was a Hebrew character asymmetric on both axes, presented either in its normal appearance or reflected. Subjects were to respond only when the stimulus was normal. Both axis of reflection (vertical, horizontal) and orientation angle (upright, tilted by 90 degrees ) were varied between blocks. In Experiment 3, stimuli were the same as in Experiment 2, but the task explicitly asked for a binary reflection judgment (normal vs. reflected). No sign for the presence of an axis effect was observed in any of those experiments, which seems incompatible with the hypothesis of vertical advantage in object perception. It is suggested that most vertical advantage observed before is due to extra-perceptual processing.

La Escritura de la Lengua Judeo-Española

This paper discusses the writing system of the Sephardic Jews, who were expelled from the Iberian peninsula in 1492. After a short description of the history of the Spanish Jews, the Jewish languages are described in general, then the Judeo-Spanish language in particular. In connection with the writing system of the language under discussion, a detailed description is provided of the varieties that use Hebrew characters when writing in Spanish, followed by an account of the systems that came into existence following the introduction of the writing system based on Latin letters. Related to the orthography of the Judeo-Spanish language, the pros and cons of the writing system using diacritics and the “ Aki Yerushalayim system” are discussed. Issues such as the maintenance of the language and its standardization are also touched upon.

The Hebrew Collection of the British Library: Past and Present

Among the great world libraries, the British Library stands out as one of the major repositories of Hebrew manuscripts and printed books. The Hebrew collection comprises the library’s holdings of material written and printed in Hebrew characters, ranging from manuscripts copied over a millennium ago to the most recent monographs and serials. It consists of over 3,000 manuscript volumes and some 10,000 Genizah fragments, around 70,000 printed book titles and nearly 1,000 serial titles. Although Hebrew is the predominant language, other Jewish languages that utilize the Hebrew script are also represented in the collection. These include Aramaic, Judeo-Arabic, Judeo- Italian, Judeo-Persian, Judeo-Spanish or Ladino and various others.