Healthy Female Athletes Research Articles

The relationship between indicators of ‘high risk’ landing mechanics and knee translations in female athletes

BackgroundWhen assessing non-contact anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury risk, prospective measures of high valgus knee angle (>8°) and high knee abduction moment (>25 Nm) measured during landings have been shown...

Serum Total Cholesterol and Triglyceride Status in Female Athletes

Background: Exercise plays a role in preventing cardiovascular disease as well as other serious health problems. Objectives: A cross sectional comparative study was performed to observe the changes in serum total cholesterol and triglyceride in apparently healthy female athletes. Methods: This study was carried out in the Department of Physiology of Dhaka Medical College from July 2005 to June 2006. For this, 30 female athletes aged 17 to 38 years (experimental) who were under regular physical exercise training for at least two years and age matched 30 healthy female non athletes (control) for comparison were selected. Fasting serum Triglyceride and total Cholesterol levels of all the subjects were measured. Data were compared between athletes and non athletes and analyzed statistically by unpaired 't' test. Results: Mean±SD cholesterol levels were 141.10 ±14.46 & 165.10±7.03 and Mean±SD Triglyceride levels were 76.10±11.54 & 96.60±17.02 in athletes and non athletes respectively. Serum total cholesterol (p<0.001) and triglycerides (p<0.01) were significantly lower; in athletes compared to those of non athlets. Conclusion: From this study it can be concluded that, serum total cholesterol and triglycerides may be lowered in athletes. Key words: Female athletes; Cholesterol; Triglyceride. DOI: 10.3329/jbsp.v5i2.6780J Bangladesh Soc Physiol. 2010 December; 5(2): 71-74

Medyada Yer Alan İnce Kadın Bedeni İmgelerinin Sporcu ve Sedanter Kadınların Beden İmgeleri Üzerindeki Etkisi

Objective: This study tested whether exposure to ideal thin female body images have an effect on athlete and nonathlete females' body image (dis)satisfaction (BID) and social physique anxiety (SPA). Material and Methods: The participants were 143 healthy female athletes (n= 67) and nonathletes (n= 76) ranging in age from 17 to 28. In addition to athletic status, groups were further divided into experimental and control groups (2 x 2 Factorial design). Individuals in experimental groups viewed a slide show which contained 37 thin female body images from various swimsuits advertisements which were selected by three referees. After the experiment, participants completed the Five Factor Personality Inventory, SPA Scale and BID Questionnaire. Body fat ratio was also measured. Individuals in control groups completed only measurement devices and their body fat ratio was measured. Results: Results showed that there was a significant body image satisfaction difference in favor of athletes' experimental group (t (65)= -2. 23, p = 0.029). However, there was no significant difference between nonathletes' control and experimental groups in terms of body image satisfaction. Results revealed that female athletes (M :24.82, SD: 7.41) had significantly lower SPA than nonathletes (M: 33.30, SD:7.50), [t (141): -6.78, p< 0.001]. Results also demonstrated that female athletes had higher body image satisfaction (M: 109.10, SD: 9.96) compared to nonathletes (M: 91.75, SD: 10.23), [t(141): 10.24, p< 0.001]. A regression model containing the Big Five personality traits could explain significant amount of variance in athletes' and nonathletes' body image satisfaction. Showing body fat ratio increased predictive ability of the regression model only in the athlete group. Conclusion: Thin female body images idealised by media may lead negative body image perception especially in female athletes.

Increased serum adiponectin concentrations in amenorrheic physically active women are associated with impaired bone health but not with estrogen exposure

BackgroundThe role of adiponectin in mediating gonadal status and bone health in weight-stable healthy adult female athletes with secondary amenorrhea has not yet been described. MethodsUsing a prospective observational study, age-matched premenopausal women were studied, including 1) sedentary ovulatory women (SedOv; n=10), 2) exercising ovulatory women (ExOv; n=15), and 3) exercising amenorrheic women (ExAmen; n=9). Primary outcome measures included serum total adiponectin and daily urinary estrogen (E1G) levels, expressed as area under the curve (AUC), body fat distribution, and bone mineral density (BMD). Serum leptin, ghrelin, total triiodothyronine (TT3), insulin, and resting energy expenditure (REE) were also determined. ResultsThe women in this study did not differ in age (25.3±1.4years; mean±SEM), height (164±1cm), weight (57.7±1.0kg) and BMI (21.5±0.4kg/m2). Exercising women had a higher fat free mass (FFM), lower fat mass (FM) and lower serum leptin concentrations (p<0.05) compared to sedentary women. Adiponectin and ghrelin levels were higher (p<0.05), and TT3 (p=0.019), urinary E1G AUC (p=0.002) lower in ExAmen compared with ExOv and SedOv. Total and L1–L4 BMD were lower (p<0.05) in ExAmen compared with ExOv. Stepwise linear regression identified trunkal FM as the strongest predictor of log adiponectin adjusted for FM (F=23.54, p<0.001). L1–L4 BMD was predicted by log adiponectin and E1G AUC (F=9.856, p=0.045). Total BMD was predicted by log adiponectin (F=7.948, p=0.009). TT3 was the strongest predictor of E1G AUC (F=9.885, p=0.004). ConclusionsHypoestrogenic adult female athletes with secondary amenorrhea demonstrate elevated circulating adiponectin relative to FM in association with impaired bone health. Estrogen exposure was predicted by TT3, but not adiponectin. These findings suggest that nutritionally regulated hormones may mediate gonadal status, and that adiponectin and estrogen, either independently or in combination, may mediate bone health in adult amenorrheic physically active women.

Lower Body Stiffness and Muscle Activity Differences Between Female Dancers and Basketball Players During Drop Jumps

Background:Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries often occur during landing, with female athletes at higher injury risk than male athletes. Interestingly, female dancers have lower ACL injury rates than do female athletes in general.Hypothesis:Female dancers will have earlier and greater lower extremity muscle activity and higher sagittal knee joint and leg stiffness than will female basketball players.Study Design:Cross-sectional group comparison.Methods:Fifty-five healthy female athletes (35 dancers, 20 basketball players) performed 5 double-leg drop jumps from a 45-cm box. Surface electromyography (onsets and amplitudes; prelanding and postlanding) was recorded from the lateral gastrocnemius, medial and lateral hamstrings, lateral quadriceps muscles with a 3-dimensional electromagnetic tracking system, and forceplates recording biomechanics (leg spring stiffness and knee joint stiffness).Results:Compared with basketball players, dancers had greater leg spring stiffness (P = 0.047) but similar knee joint stiffness (P = 0.44). Although no significant differences were observed in overall muscle onset times (P = 0.22) or activation amplitudes (prelanding, P = 0.60; postlanding, P = 0.78), small to moderate effect sizes (ESs) suggest trends in dancers toward earlier (ES = 0.53) and higher medial hamstrings activation pre- (ES = 0.55) and post- (ES = 0.41) landing and lower lateral quadriceps (ES = 0.30) and higher gastrocnemius (ES = 0.33) postlanding muscle activation.Conclusions:In dancers, the higher leg spring stiffness and trends toward higher hamstrings prelanding and postlanding, as well as lower quadriceps and higher gastrocnemius activation postlanding with similar knee joint stiffness, indicate lower extremity neuromechanical differences across other joints.Clinical Relevance:Female dancers may have lower extremity neuromechanics that are different from those of basketball players during drop jumps. If dancers use ACL-protective strategies during activity, then their training routines should be further investigated to improve ACL injury prevention programs.

The Early Mtor Signaling Responses To Resistance Exercise Stimuli In Skeletal Muscle In Well-trained Athletes

INTRODUCTION: Muscle contractile activity associated with physical exercise stimulates multiple signaling pathways and induces transient changes in gene transcription. The bulk of skeletal muscle is regulated by the control of hypertrophy (anabolic) and atrophy (catabolic) processes. Muscle protein synthesis (MPS) is stimulated, while a small suppression of muscle protein breakdown (MPB) occurs, such that protein balance becomes positive (MPS > MPB). Recently several line of studies has been focused on the role played by the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signal pathway, i.e., activation of mTOR and its downstream signaling proteins p70 ribosomal protein S6 kinase (p70S6k) and eukaryotic initiation factor (eIF) 4E-binding protein (4E-BP1), in regulating translation initiation to syntheses of muscle protein. Furthermore, more recent work has shown that artificial activation of AMPK suppresses muscle protein synthesis by inhibiting the mTOR signaling pathway. Therefore, we hypothesized that the cellular mechanism for the decrease in muscle protein synthesis during an acute bout of resistance exercise in humans would be associated with an activation of AMPK in addition to an inhibition of the downstream components of the mTOR signaling pathway (4E-BP1 Thr37/46 and S6K1 Thr421/Ser424). METHODS: Eight healthy elite male (n=4) and female (n=4) athletes (22.8±1yrs) performed 10 sets of 10 leg extensions at 60°deg/sec. Muscle biopsies were taken from the vastus lateralis at rest, and 30 s after stopping the exercise. Western blotting with phosphospecific and pan antibodies was used to determine the phosphorylation status of AMPK, 4E-BP1, mTOR, and p70S6k. Blood samples were analysed for serum estradiol(E2), testosterone, insulin, GH and IGF- 1. RESULTS: The phosphorylation states of p70S6k on Thr421/Ser424 and AMPK on Thr172 were increased by 137% and 27% (p<.05). However, high intensity of resistance exercise did not induce any significant changes in mTOR and 4E-BP1 phosphorylations after acute exercise. In addition, estradiol(E2) and growth hormone were increased by 21% (p<.05) and 1784% (p<.001), whereas insulin was decreased by 112% (p<.05) after exercise. CONCLUSION: The present study demonstrates that resistance exercise increases AMPK activity and inhibit mTOR, 4E-BP1 phosphorylation and protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle. Thus, we postulated that one session of resistance exercise activates rather p70S6k in human muscle via an Akt-independent pathway as reported in the previous studies. KEY WORDS: resistance exercise, mTOR, AMPK, 4E-BP1, p70S6K and Western blotting *[email protected]

Sex alters impact of repeated bouts of sprint exercise on neuromuscular activity in trained athletes

This study characterized the effect of sex on neuromuscular activity during repeated bouts of sprint exercise. Thirty-three healthy male and female athletes performed twenty 5-s cycle sprints separated by 25 s of rest. Mechanical work and integrated electromyograhs (iEMG) of 4 muscles of the dominant lower limb were calculated in every sprint. The iEMG signals from individual muscles were summed to represent overall electrical activity of these muscles (sum-iEMG). Neuromuscular efficiency (NME) was calculated as the ratio of mechanical work and sum-iEMG for every sprint. Arterial oxygen saturation was estimated (SpO2) with pulse oximetry throughout the protocol. The sprint-induced work decrement (18.9% vs. 29.6%; p < 0.05) and sum-iEMG reduction (11.4% vs. 19.4%; p < 0.05) were less for the women than for the men. However, the sprints decreased NME (10.1%; p < 0.05) and SpO2 (3.4%; p < 0.05) without showing sex dimorphism. Changes in SpO2 and sum-iEMG were strongly correlated in both sexes (men, R2 = 0.87; women, R2 = 0.91; all p < 0.05), although the slope of this relationship differed (6.3 +/- 2.9 vs. 3.8 +/- 1.6, respectively; p < 0.05). It is suggested that the sex difference in fatigue during repeated bouts of sprint exercise is not likely to be explained by a difference in muscle contractility impairment in men and women, but may be due to a sex difference in muscle recruitment strategy. We speculate that women would be less sensitive to arterial O2 desaturation than men, which may trigger lower neuromuscular adjustments to exhaustive exercise.

Failure of leptin to reverse estrogen 2-hydroxlyation and exercise-induced menstrual irregularities in eucaloric female athletes

Introduction: It has been postulated that the apparent ability of recombinant human leptin therapy to reverse clinical hypothalamic amenorrhea would support the validity of the energy balance/deficiency (EBD) hypothesis. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effect of leptin administration on catecholestrogen (CE) metabolism and menstrual status in eucaloric female athletes. Methods: Sixteen healthy eumenorrheic female athletes free of oral contraceptives, participated in a 3-month cross-over trial, with 2 months of leptin treatment.

Limb Asymmetries in Landing and Jumping 2 Years Following Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction

Female athletes who are at increased risk for anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury demonstrate biomechanical differences between limbs during athletic tasks that may persist following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR). This may limit an athlete's potential for safe return to sports competition. The purpose of this study was to determine if female athletes demonstrate lower limb asymmetries in landing and takeoff force following ACLR and clearance for return to competitive sports participation. We hypothesized that females following ACLR would demonstrate side-to-side differences in landing and jumping kinetics after their return to sport (2+ years) that would not be observed in a group of healthy female controls. Case control study. The Sports Medicine Biodynamics Center at Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center. Fourteen female athletes at a mean of 27 months following ACLR and 18 healthy female athletes participated in the study. All subjects executed a drop vertical jump (DVJ) task onto 2 force plates. Vertical ground reaction force (VGRF) was measured during landing and takeoff and was used to calculate landing phase loading rates. A 2-way analysis of variance was used to determine differences between the involved, uninvolved, and control limbs. Females who had undergone ACLR demonstrated increased VGRF (P = 0.001) and loading rate (P < 0.001) on the uninvolved limb during landing when compared with the involved limb and the control group. During takeoff, the involved limb showed significantly less ability to generate force (P = 0.03) than the uninvolved limb and the control limbs. Female athletes who have undergone ACLR and returned to sport may continue to demonstrate biomechanical limb asymmetries 2 years or more after reconstruction that can be identified during landing.

Exercise Intensity and Duration as Factors Contributing to Hypoalgesia Among Nocioceptive C-Fibers

Exercise Induced Hypoalgesia (EIH) is characterized by a temporary desensitization of the nocioceptive system both during and after physical exertion. Although EIH is well documented in the literature, the underlying mechanisms responsible for this phenomenon remain somewhat unclear. PURPOSE: To observe the changes in nocioception of the C-Pain fibers both during and after moderately intense exercise. METHODS: Fourteen healthy collegiate female athletes volunteered for this study. After an initial V02 peak assessment, subjects returned to the laboratory approximately one week later to exercise for 20 minutes on a cycle ergometer at a workload corresponding to 70%-75% of their V02 peak. Electrodiagnostic Pain (EP) assessment and Heart Rate (HR) were collected at time points corresponding to: pre-exercise (Baseline), 10 and 20 minutes into exercise, as well as 10 and 20 minutes into recovery. EP scores were collected using a Neurometer and were normalized by expressing each subjects scores as a multiple of their baseline value. HR was collected using a Polar HR monitor. Each dependent variable was analyzed using a repeated measures ANOVA with a significance level of p<0.05. RESULTS: A table with the means and standard deviations for each variable can be found below.TableCONCLUSIONS: Based upon these data, it appears that exercise duration is an important factor in eliciting EIH. Although there are several physiological mechanisms that may be responsible for the temporary desensitization of the nocioceptive system, these findings suggest that there may be an accumulating effect of circulating opiates that may be responsible for at least some of the pain variations observed both during and after exercise.

Strength Gains in Female Recreational Athletes Employing a Resistance Band Training Protocol

Reduced muscle strength is often cited as a risk factor for sports injuries. Although resistance bands are often employed in elderly populations and in rehabilitating athletes, their use for the purpose of making significant strength gains in healthy athletes has not previously been demonstrated. PURPOSE: To determine the level of strength gains in female recreational athletes from a resistance training protocol employing resistance bands. METHODS: 25 female recreational athletes (Age: 22.9±3.6 yrs., Height: 1.67±.07 m, Weight: 64.0±9.9 kg) were enrolled after gaining IRB-approved informed consent. The subjects' maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) strength of the quadriceps (Q), hamstrings (H), gluteus medius (MED), and gluteus maximus (MAX) were assessed using a hand-held dynamometer. The resistance training protocol lasted 6 weeks with 3 training sessions per week lasting approximately 40 minutes each. The protocol employed 4 exercises targeting the Q, H, MED, and MAX muscles, and was designed such that it could be employed in a team practice setting. The subjects began the protocol employing resistance bands equivalent to 60% of their MVIC at 100% elongation. The subjects were progressed by 10% of their MVIC once the goal of 3 sets of 12 repetitions was met. A metronome was used to maintain a contraction speed of 90 degrees per second. All sessions were monitored to ensure proper technique, progression of resistance, and compliance. The subjects' strength was then re-assessed after completion of the protocol. Dependent t-tests (α=.05) were employed to determine statistical significance. RESULTS: The Q (6.88±1.23 vs. 4.82±1.11 N/kg, p <.001), H (3.85±.60 vs. 2.95±.51 N/kg, p <.001), MED(6.40±.82 vs. 4.51±.96 N/kg, p <.001), and MAX (4.77±.70 vs. 3.18±.56 N/kg, p <.001) muscles increased in MVIC strength subsequent to the resistance training protocol. CONCLUSIONS: Resistance bands may be effectively employed to significantly increase strength in healthy female recreational athletes. These results may lead to simple and cost-effective resistance training programs that may be employed as a regular component of team practices in the field without the need for specialized equipment or storage.

Ghrelin Blood Profiles in Athletes from Different Sports

PURPOSE: Endogenous Ghrelin is secreted from the stomach to circulate in the bloodstream and act directly on the pituitary to release GH. Therefore, ghrelin will induce all the effects well known from GH. It seems very likely that, like GH, ghrelin may also be effective in improving training adaptation processes, especially increasing muscle mass and shortening regeneration processes. It is not known whether Ghrelin plasma concentrations differ between male and female athletes in different sports. METHODS: We determined endogenous active Ghrelin concentrations in 42 healthy and normal weight male and female power and endurance athletes (age between 18 and 40 yrs), once without any nutritional intake for 12 hrs, and once under carbo-loading and glucose substitution. Subjects did not do any physical activity in the blood sampling period of 180 min with a sampling frequency of 60 min, starting at 8 PM. Ghrelin concentrations were determined using a radioimmunoassay. RESULTS: There was no significant effect of kind of sport (endurance or power), gender, or nutritional intake (no meal vs. carboloading) on active ghrelin blood concentration in athletes at rest. CONCLUSION: As neither kind of sport nor nutrirional status or gender have any influence on active ghrelin, it seems to play - if any - only a minor role in adaptation processes concerning training and its effects on the growth hormone axis.

Perturbation-enhanced neuromuscular training alters muscle activity in female athletes

Female athletes involved in jumping and cutting sports injure their anterior cruciate ligaments (ACL) 4-6 times more frequently than their male counterparts in comparable sports. Neuromuscular factors, including quadriceps dominance, has been incriminated as contributing to the higher rates of injury in women. Currently, the most effective form of intervention developed to reduce female ACL injury rates has been neuromuscular training. The purpose of this study was to (1) identify gender based muscle activity patterns during disturbed walking that may contribute to ACL injury, and (2) determine if a novel training program could positively influence patterns among healthy female athletes utilizing a disturbed gait paradigm. Twenty healthy athletes (female=10, male=10) were tested. All subjects participated in five trials during which a platform translated horizontally in a lateral direction at heel contact before and after completing ten sessions of a perturbation training program. Electromyographic (EMG) data from the vastus lateralis, medial and lateral hamstrings, and medial gastrocnemius were collected. Trials were analyzed for the muscle onset, termination of activity, peak amplitude, time to peak amplitude, and integrated EMG activity. Muscle cocontraction, the simultaneous activation of antagonistic muscles (lateral hamstrings-vastus lateralis, and medial gastrocnemius-vastus lateralis), was calculated as indicators of active knee stiffness in preparation for heel strike, during weight acceptance and midstance. Prior to training, women had significantly higher peak quadriceps activity and higher integrated quadriceps activity during midstance than men. Both medial and lateral hamstring integrals during midstance increased from pre to posttraining. Onset times to peak activities for hamstrings and quadriceps were similar before training except for medial hamstring time to peak which occurred after heel strike in most women. Time to peak medial hamstring activity moved from after to just before heel strike after training. Women had higher medial gastrocnemius-vastus lateralis cocontraction indices in the preparatory and weight acceptance phases of gait than men after training. Prior to training, the athletic women in our sample demonstrated characteristic quadriceps dominance and decreased active knee stiffness when compared to male athletes. Modulation of activity and timing of ACL agonist musculature (hamstrings and gastrocnemius) from before to after training resulted in normal quadriceps-hamstring balance and increased active stiffness. These alterations in ACL agonist muscle activation patterns may reduce the risk of biomechanical strain injury among a high risk population.

THE LONG-TERM EFFECT OF CBT AND NUTRITIONAL COUNSELING IN TREATING BULIMIC ELITE ATHLETES

The prevalence of eating disorders among elite female athletes is high. However, no clinically controlled treatment studies have been reported. Therefore, the aims of this treatment study on bulimia nervosa were to examine the effect of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), and to compare the effect of CBT versus the effect of nutritional advice. The total population of Norwegian female elite athletes (n = 660, age 15–39 years) participated in a screening study for eating disorders. In the second phase of the study, those classified as “at risk” for eating disorders (n = 156) participated in a clinical interview. 115 athletes met the DSM-IV criteria for anorexia nervosa (n = 13), bulimia nervosa (n = 44) and ED-NOS (n = 58). The 44 bulimic athletes were invited to participate in a treatment-study. 42 normal weight bulimic athletes were randomly assigned to a CBT (n = 14), nutritional advice (n = 14) or a waiting list control group (n = 14). Seventeen healthy female athletes were also included. Treatment effects were determined by the frequency of binge eating and purging, scores on the Eating Disorder Inventory sub-scales 'Drive for thinness', Bulimia' and 'Body dissatisfaction' and by a clinical interview to measure symptom severity. Assessments were made pre- and post-treatment and at six and 18 months follow-up after the end of treatment. CBT appeared more effective than nutrition counseling in reducing pursuit of thinness, frequency of bingeing, purging and laxative abuse. Nutritional counseling was more effective than waiting list controls. CBT is important in the treatment of bulimic athletes. Further studies should address possible additive effects of CBT and nutrition counseling.

Knee joint laxity and neuromuscular characteristics of male and female soccer and basketball players.

Anterior cruciate ligament injuries are occurring at a higher rate in female athletes compared with their male counterparts. Research in the area of anterior cruciate ligament injury has increasingly focused on the role of joint proprioception and muscle activity in promoting knee joint stability. We measured knee joint laxity, joint kinesthesia, lower extremity balance, the amount of time required to generate peak torque of the knee flexor and extensor musculature, and electromyographically assessed muscle activity in 34 healthy, collegiate-level athletes (average age, 19.6 +/- 1.5 years) who played soccer or basketball or both. Independent t-tests were used to determine significant sex differences. Results revealed that women inherently possess significantly greater knee joint laxity values, demonstrate a significantly longer time to detect the knee joint motion moving into extension, possess significantly superior single-legged balance ability, and produce significantly greater electromyographic peak amplitude and area of the lateral hamstring muscle subsequent to landing a jump. The excessive joint laxity of women appears to contribute to diminished joint proprioception, rendering the knee less sensitive to potentially damaging forces and possibly at risk for injury. Unable to rely on ligamentous structures, healthy female athletes appear to have adopted compensatory mechanisms of increased hamstring activity to achieve functional joint stabilization.

Hormonal responses to endurance training and overtraining in female athletes.

To examine different hormonal responses to heavy endurance training and overtraining in female athletes. Submaximal and maximal treadmill tests, self-report mood measures, and stress hormone analyses were repeated at baseline, after 4 weeks and at the end of 6 to 9 weeks of experimental intensive training and after 4 to 6 weeks of recovery. Fifteen healthy female endurance athletes increased their intensive training volume by 130% and base training volume by 100% (ETG, n = 9) or served as controls (CG, n = 6). Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max), mood dynamics, blood catecholamines, cortisol and testosterone at rest and after submaximal and maximal exercise, and nocturnal urine catecholamines. Five females from the ETG demonstrated an over-training state (OA subgroup) at the end of the training period. Their VO2max decreased (mean +/- SEM) from 53.0 +/- 2.2 ml.kg-1.min-1 (range, 46.8-59.2) to 50.2 +/- 2.3 ml.kg-1.min-1 (range, 43.8-56.6) (p < 0.01). Maximal treadmill performance expressed as oxygen demand decreased (mean +/- SEM) from 56.0 +/- 1.6 ml.kg-1.min-1 (range, 51.5-60.5) to 52.2 +/- 1.1 ml kg-1.min-1 (range, 49.1-55.3) (p < 0.01). Maximal heart rate also decreased (mean +/- SEM) from 190 +/- 1 bpm (range, 185-197) to 186 +/- 2 bpm (range, 184-193) (p < 0.05), and the athletes experienced mood disturbances. Plasma adrenaline levels at maximal and noradrenaline at submaximal work rate decreased during the last 2 to 5 training weeks (p < 0.05), and serum cortisol levels at maximal work rate decreased during the first 4 training weeks (p < 0.05) in the ETG. Plasma adrenaline at maximal work rate decreased during the first 4 training weeks (p < 0.05) in the OA subgroup. There were no changes in the CG. Individual hormonal response types to heavy training and overtraining were found. Hormone responses to exercise load are superior in indicating heavy training-induced stress when compared with resting hormone levels. These responses indicated decreased sympathoadrenal and/or adrenocortical activity (or exhaustion of the adrenal gland or the central nervous system). Individual hormonal profiles are needed to follow up training effects. Marked individual differences were found in training- and overtraining-induced hormonal changes.

Effect of Ankle Position on EMG Activity and Peak Torque of the Knee Extensors and Flexors during Isokinetic Testing

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of ankle position on the electromyographic (EMG) activity, peak torque, and peak knee flexion to extension torque ratio during isokinetic testing of the knee. Twelve healthy female athletes performed six maximal knee extension and flexion repetitions with their dominant legs at 60 and 180°/s with the ankle in a plantar flexed position and again in a dorsiflexed position. Root mean square EMG (rmsEMG) activity was determined by placing bipolar surface electrodes on the quadriceps and the hamstrings. Ankle position had no effect on the rmsEMG activity of the quadriceps or the hamstrings at either 60 or 180°/s. Significant differences were noted for peak flexor torque at 607s (p &lt; .001) and 180°/s (p &lt;.01) and for peak torque flexor/extensor ratio (p &lt; .01), with higher values observed with ankle dorsiflexion. This suggests that ankle position affects knee flexor torque and flexor/extensor ratio but not hamstring activity during isokinetic testing of the knee.

Evaluation of Two Ankle Appliances Using Ground Reaction Force Data

The purpose of this study was to evaluate, using ground reaction force data, two ankle stabilizing techniques commonly used by athletic trainers; the closed Gibney taping procedure and the boot type ankle stabilizer. Each condition was examined in a pre- and postexercise bout. In addition, a no appliance condition was also tested. Eight healthy female athletes were required to perform ten satisfactory trials in each of the five conditions. Ten trial mean values of 34 descriptors of ground reaction force components for each subject/condition were evaluated using multivariate analyses of variance. No significant differences in any of the force or impulse variables were found across conditions. However, significant differences were found in three variables describing the relative timing of events in the footfall (p < 0.05). No significant differences were found between the pre- and postexercise conditions. The variability in the measured parameters. of the no appliance condition was consistently higher than the ankle appliance conditions. The implication of the study was that, in normal running, the ankle appliances did not appear to moderate or change foot function. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1986;7(5):244-249.

Effect of Physical Exercise on some Hematological Parameters in Female Athletes in Bangladesh

Long term physical training has been considered to adversely affect the performance of athletes especially the females. It may be due to the iron depletion caused by hemolysis or hemodilution results from plasma volume expansion. This study aims to assess the effect of heavy exercise on hemoglobin concentration and some other hematological parameters in female athletes. This cross sectional study was carried out in the Department of physiology, Dhaka Medical College, Dhaka, from July 2010-June 2011. A total number of 105 females (70 athletes and 35 non athletes) between 15-25 years of age were recruited. The 35 apparently healthy female non athletes were taken as control (Group-A) and 70 female athletes comprise the study group (Group-B). According to sporting category, Group-B was further subdivided as B1:Runners and B2:Cyclists. Hemoglobin percentages (Hb %), red blood cell (RBC) concentration, packed cell volume (PCV), serum iron, serum ferritin and total iron binding capacity (TIBC) were measured in fasting state after two months training. Statistical analysis was done by using SPSS/ win.15.0 for comparison between the groups, using student's unpaired "t" test. Mean Hb%, RBC, PCV, iron and ferritin level were significantly (P<0.001) lower in athletes than those of control group. Within the study groups, runner's serum iron and ferritin level were lower than cyclists. TIBC significantly (P<0.001) rose in Group-B2 in comparison to Group-A. The current study showed that intense physical exercise leads to early stages of Hb%, RBC, PCV, iron and ferritin depletion which might compromise the health and performance of athletes.