Head Start Centers Research Articles

Evaluating the efficacy of children participating in Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters and Head Start

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of the Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters program when implemented within Head Start programs by measuring children’s language proficiency scores. Participants were kindergarteners concurrently enrolled in both a Head Start program and the Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters program along with a comparison group of kindergarteners only enrolled in a Head Start program. According to the results of the chi-square analysis, all of the children who participated in the “Head Start and HIPPY” group scored “developed” on all sections of Texas Primary Reading Inventory or its Spanish language equivalent, El Inventario de Lectura en Español de Tejas. However, only about 33 percent of children in the “Head Start Only” group demonstrated “developed” remarks. The remainder of the “Head Start Only” group (67%) scored “needs intervention” on the Texas Primary Reading Inventory/ El Inventario de Lectura en Español de Tejas. Children who participated in both Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters and attended a Head Start Center showed statistically higher scores in language proficiency (χ2(1, N = 22) = 4.07, p = .04) than children who only attended Head Start.

Effects of an Obesity Prevention Intervention on Physical Activity Among Preschool Children: The CHILE Study.

Background Limited research addresses interventions to increase physical activity among American Indian and Hispanic preschool-aged children living in rural areas. We examined the impact of a Head Start-based intervention (Child Health Initiative for Lifelong Eating and Exercise [CHILE]) on physical activity at home. Method Sixteen Head Start centers in predominantly Hispanic or American Indian communities were group randomized to the six-component intervention or a comparison group for 2 years. Structured surveys were administered at four assessment times to a convenience sample of caregivers of 655 children in the study. Multilevel modeling was used to assess the effects of the intervention on physical activity. Results The relative change in physical activity in the intervention group compared with the comparison group over the 2-year period was 1.56 (95% confidence interval [1.02, 2.38]; p = .04). Among specific promoted activities (ball playing, dancing, active games, jumping, and walking), dancing increased significantly in the intervention compared with the comparison group (2.9; 95% confidence interval [1.2, 7.1]; p = .02). Conclusions The CHILE intervention was effective at increasing physical activity at home in preschool children in priority populations. Future research should focus on increasing family involvement and strengthening messaging about physical activity in these populations.

Successful Sodium Reduction at Head Start: Student Acceptance and Reduced Cost

To determine children’s acceptance and food costs when lowering sodium in Head Start lunches. Participants were 135 children enrolled at four Head Start centers. Four lunch entrees were modified to reduce sodium. The children indicated taste acceptance of both original and modified entrees through a 5-figure emoticon instrument. Digital photographs of lunches at meal end were analyzed for waste of each food item. Meal cost was calculated through plate waste assessment and purchasing records. Four lunch entrees were modified to reduce sodium by 21% (714 to 564mg), resulting in an overall meal sodium reduction of 43% (1060 to 600mg). Emoticon taste tests were converted to scores from 1 (do not like at all) to 5 (like very much). Meal item waste (entrée, vegetable, grain, fruit) was calculated comparing individual photos to classroom control meals. T-tests were used to compare results for all measures. Taste tests indicated the children liked equally 3 of the 4 entrees (original scores 4.1-4.3; lower sodium scores 3.9-4.3). Chicken bites was not successfully replaced with lower sodium chicken ratatouille (chicken bites score 4.5, ratatouille score 3.6; p<.001). Overall, total lunch waste did not change, i.e., 52% originally and 51% after reducing sodium. Within the meal, however, entrée waste was the leading indicator of the amount of waste of grain, fruit or vegetables. Calculated meal cost dropped with reducing sodium, $2.51 and $2.36, respectively, though not significantly. Simple substitutions can significantly reduce sodium in meals without increasing waste or cost. When properly replaced, children will accept lower sodium foods.

CHILE: Outcomes of a group randomized controlled trial of an intervention to prevent obesity in preschool Hispanic and American Indian children

ObjectiveWe examined the outcomes of the Child Health Initiative for Lifelong Eating and Exercise (CHILE) study, a group randomized controlled trial to design, implement, and test the efficacy of a trans-community intervention to prevent obesity in children enrolled in Head Start centers in rural American Indian and Hispanic communities in New Mexico. MethodsCHILE was a 5-year evidence-based intervention that used a socioecological approach to improving dietary intake and increasing physical activity of 1898 children. The intervention included a classroom curriculum, teacher and food service training, family engagement, grocery store participation, and healthcare provider support. Height and weight measurements were obtained four times (fall of 2008, spring and fall of 2009, and spring of 2010), and body mass index (BMI) z-scores in the intervention and comparison groups were compared. ResultsAt baseline, demographic characteristics in the comparison and intervention groups were similar, and 33% of all the children assessed were obese or overweight. At the end of the intervention, there was no significant difference between the two groups in BMI z-scores. ConclusionsObesity prevention research among Hispanic and AI preschool children in rural communities is challenging and complex. Although the CHILE intervention was implemented successfully, changes in overweight and obesity may take longer than 2years to achieve.

The Impact of the CHILE Intervention on the Food Served in Head Start Centers in Rural New Mexico.

The Child Health Initiative for Lifelong Eating and Exercise is a multicomponent obesity-prevention intervention, which was evaluated among Head Start (HS) centers in American Indian and predominantly Hispanic communities in rural New Mexico. This study examines the intervention's foodservice outcomes: fruits, vegetables, whole grains, discretionary fats, added sugars, and fat from milk served in meals and snacks. Sixteen HS centers were randomized to intervention/comparison groups, following stratification by ethnicity and preintervention median body mass index of enrolled children. The foodservice component included quarterly trainings for foodservice staff about food purchasing and preparation. Foods served were evaluated before and after the 2-year intervention, in the fall 2008 and spring 2010. The intervention significantly decreased fat provided through milk and had no significant effect on fruit, vegetables and whole-grain servings, discretionary fats, and added sugar served in HS meals and snacks. When effect modification by site ethnicity was examined, the effect on fat provided through milk was only found in American Indian sites. Foodservice interventions can reduce the amount of fat provided through milk served in HS. More research is needed regarding the implementation of foodservice interventions to improve the composition of foods served in early education settings.

The randomized controlled trial of Head Start REDI: Sustained effects on developmental trajectories of social-emotional functioning.

This study assessed the sustained effects of Head Start REDI (Research-based, Developmentally Informed), a randomized controlled preschool preventive intervention, on children's developmental trajectories of social-emotional functioning into elementary school. Twenty-five Head Start centers with 44 classrooms were randomly assigned to deliver Head Start REDI or Head Start as usual. Head Start REDI featured an integrated language-emergent literacy and social-emotional skills curriculum and enhanced support for positive teaching practices. The 356 4-year-old children (54% girls; 25% African American; 17% Latino; 70% living in poverty) in those centers and classrooms were followed for 5 years (from preschool through third grade; 91% retention rate). Each year, teachers rated multiple domains of social-emotional functioning. Person-oriented latent class growth models were used to identify the different developmental trajectories of social-emotional functioning that children followed. Tests of proportions revealed that children who had been in the Head Start REDI intervention were statistically significantly more likely than children in the control condition to follow the most optimal developmental trajectories of social competence, aggressive-oppositional behavior, learning engagement, attention problems, student-teacher closeness, and peer rejection (odds ratio = 1.60-1.93). These findings suggest that enriching Head Start with evidence-based curriculum components and teaching practices can have long-lasting benefits for children's social-emotional functioning. These findings elucidate how high-quality preschool experiences promote core competencies that are critical to the school success of children living in poverty.

Validity of anthropometric measurements, BMI and child growth assessments conducted by Head Start teachers: training needs for longitudinal child growth surveillance

BackgroundHigh prevalence of childhood obesity and associated diseases have been observed in the US Affiliated Pacific but no system for monitoring young child obesity in the region is available. Head Start (HS) preschools located throughout the region complete bi‐annual growth assessments to assess childhood obesity and can potentially contribute to a growth monitoring system.ObjectiveTo assess the relative validity of HS anthropometric measurements and growth assessments for potential use in a surveillance system.MethodsThis was a validation study of HS child anthropometric measurements taken by HS teachers against standardized researcher measurements for height and weight. Data from 19 HS classrooms (135 children) that were previously enrolled in a larger randomized control trial were included in this study. Differences in height, weight, BMI and CDC BMI categories between HS teachers and a standardized researcher were analyzed using paired t‐tests, controlling for child age at time of measurement to quantify differences in HS and researcher measured heights and weights. weighted Kappa statistics determined agreement between the methods on BMI weight categories adjusting for age at measurement with post‐hoc paired t‐tests to analyze differences in BMI categories by measurement method.ResultsHS teacher growth assessments did not significantly differ from those of a standardized researcher and weighted Kappa statistics for agreement based on CDC BMI categories showed reasonable agreement between the two methods (weighted kappa=0.72).ConclusionsAt the programmatic level, this level of agreement suggests that HS measurements are adequate for determining prevalence of BMI categories. However, they may not provide sufficient precision to assess changes over time in individuals and research studies (ie: measuring intervention or program effect). Anthropometric data from HS centers may contribute to a system for childhood overweight and obesity surveillance in the US Affiliated Pacific, however, further training on conducting measurements would be necessary to track individual changes over time.Support or Funding InformationThis project is supported by the Agriculture and Food Research Initiative Grant no. 2011‐68001‐30335 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agricultural Science Enhancement Coordinated Agricultural Program

Comparing public, private, and informal preschool programs in a national sample of low-income children

Recent research has found that center-based early education and care (EEC) programs promote gains in cognitive skills for low-income children, but knowledge is limited concerning diverse types of EEC arrangements. This paper contrasts the primary EEC arrangements (Head Start, public centers, private centers, and home care) attended by economically disadvantaged children in the US with data on 4250 low-income children from the nationally-representative ECLS-B cohort. Results found public centers and Head Start programs provided children with the most educated and highly trained teachers and with the most enriching learning activities and global quality, with private centers showing moderate levels and home EEC very low levels of quality. Nonetheless, after adjusting for differential selection into EEC through propensity score weighting, low-income children who attended private EEC centers showed the highest math, reading, and language skills at age 5, with children attending Head Start and public centers also showing heightened math and reading skills in comparison to children experiencing only parent care. No differences were found in children’s behavioral skills at age five in relation to EEC type. Results support enhanced access to all center preschool programs for low-income children, and suggest the need for greater understanding of the processes through which EEC affects children’s school readiness skills.

Perceived Parental Barriers to and Strategies for Supporting Physical Activity and Healthy Eating among Head Start Children.

Despite the need for parents to support their children's healthy behaviors, knowledge of factors preventing parents from doing so is still rudimentary. This study primarily aimed to explore perceived parental barriers to and strategies for supporting physical activity and healthy eating among Head Start children. A semi-structured interview format was used with four focus groups conducted at two urban Head Start centers in the Midwestern U.S. A qualitative content analysis of audio-recorded sessions was facilitated using ATLAS.ti7. A convenience sample of 32 parents (Mage=34.97years) participated. Over half were female (78.1%), African Americans (65.6%), and single (65.6%). About 61.3% reported an annual family income <$20,000, and 43.8% were unemployed. Three themes reflected the barriers: (1) intrapersonal (child): short attention span and limited eating preferences; (2) interpersonal (parent): lack of time and cooking skills and a tight family budget; and (3) environmental: inaccessible programs, lack of age-appropriate education, electronic media use, and unsafe environment. Parents across all groups expressed high interest in enrolling in a program with their children. Recommendations included: parents' support team; family outings at parks; taking a walk or enrolling in a class with children; and planting a garden. Many parents showed their preference for face-to-face meetings and a support group, but repulsion of counseling. To promote parental support in future interventions with Head Start children, their perceived intrapersonal, interpersonal, and environmental barriers should be considered as intervention targets. Involving parents through a support group and face-to-face meetings is recommended.

Parent Involvement in Head Start and Children's Development: Indirect Effects Through Parenting.

The authors examined the extent to which parent involvement in Head Start programs predicted changes in both parent and child outcomes over time, using a nationally representative sample of 1,020 three-year-old children over 3 waves of the Family and Child Experiences Survey. Center policies that promote involvement predicted greater parent involvement, and parents who were more involved in Head Start centers demonstrated increased cognitive stimulation and decreased spanking and controlling behaviors. In turn, these changes in parenting behaviors were associated with gains in children's academic and behavioral skills. These findings suggest that Head Start programs should do even more to facilitate parent involvement because it can serve as an important means for promoting both parent and child outcomes.

Fit 5 Kids TV Reduction Program for Latino Preschoolers: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial.

Reducing Latino preschoolers' TV viewing is needed to reduce their risk of obesity and other chronic diseases. This study's objective was to evaluate the Fit 5 Kids (F5K) TV reduction program's impact on Latino preschooler's TV viewing. Cluster RCT with randomization at the center level and N=160 participants. Latino children aged 3-5 years and their parents were recruited from six Head Start centers in Houston TX in 2010-2012 with analyses in 2013-2014. F5K was culturally adapted for Latino preschoolers and the overall goal was to reduce TV viewing. Study staff taught F5K over 7-8 weeks during the regular Head Start day directly to intervention students. Control schools provided the usual Head Start curriculum, which did not specifically cover TV viewing. Individual-level outcomes were measured prior to (Time 1) and immediately following (Time 2) the intervention. The primary outcome, TV viewing (minutes/day), was measured by validated 7-day TV diaries (parent-reported). Sedentary time was measured by accelerometers. Per the adjusted repeated measures linear mixed effects model for TV viewing (minutes/day), intervention children decreased from 76.2 (9.9) at Time 1 to 52.1 (10.0) at Time 2, whereas control children remained about the same from 84.2 (10.5) at Time 1 to 85.4 (10.5) at Time 2. The relative difference from Time 1 to Time 2 was -25.3 (95% CI= -45.2, -5.4) minutes for intervention versus control children (N=160, p=0.01). In a similar adjusted model, there was a relative decrease in sedentary time (minutes/day) from Time 1 to Time 2 favoring the intervention children (-9.5, 95% CI= -23.0, 4.1), although not significant at p<0.05. F5K reduced Latino preschoolers' TV viewing by >25 minutes daily. These findings have implications for prevention of obesity, related disorders, and health equity. This study is registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov NCT01216306.

Abstract 19806: Factors’ Influence Blood Pressure in 3-5 Year Old Preschool Children

Introduction: It is estimated that 2-3 million children in the US have diagnosed hypertension that can track to adulthood and is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). However, the prevalence of instance elevations of blood pressure (BP) in children is estimated to greatly exceed the prevalence of hypertension. There is increasing evidence that risk factors for CVD, including hypertension and instance elevations in BP, begin in childhood. It is unclear when the elevations in BP first appear in children and what factors influence BP. Few studies have examined instance elevations in BP in preschool children and/or what factors influence BP. Hypothesis: The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of elevated BP readings in a group of rural and urban preschool children and to determine if there were differences in BP status (normal, prehypertensive, or hypertensive range) based on race, gender, location, prematurity status, or body mass index (BMI) status. Methods: A cross-sectional comparative design was used to address the purpose. A convenience sample of 56 3-5 year old children (27 rural, 29 urban; 37 male, 19 female; 33 Black, 21 White) were recruited from Head Start Centers. Height, weight, and BP were collected according to protocols at the Centers. Results: Based on pediatric percentiles, 30% of the children had elevated BP readings; 14% Pre-Hypertensive readings (6 males; 2 female; 4 Black; 4 White); 16% Hypertensive readings (6 males; 3 females; 5 Black, 4 White). Seventy-six percent of elevated BP readings were systolic BP (SBP); 47% of those with elevated BP readings had diastolic elevations, while 23.5% had elevations in both SBP and DBP. Nine participants were overweight; 5 were obese. Over 65% of the children with BP elevations were normoweight. There were no differences in BP status based on race, gender, location, prematurity or BMI Status. There was a small effect size for the relationship between race, BMI status, prematurity and BP status. Conclusions: Thirty percent of 3-5 year-old children in this sample had elevated BP readings, the majority of which were SBP. BP should be measured in children at each visit to health care providers and elevations in BP readings addressed early to prevent later hypertension and other CVDs.

Barriers and Facilitators to Healthy Eating and Activity in Head Start Staff: An Opportunity for Worksite Wellness

Background: Head Start (HS) staff are ideally positioned to promote healthy behaviors to over one million low-income children each year, however little is understood about their own health. Purpose: To conduct a needs assessment with HS staff to: 1) understand perceptions, barriers and motivators to healthful behaviors; and 2) ascertain interest in a worksite wellness program. Methods: Surveys (n = 154) and telephone interviews (n = 25) were conducted with HS staff from eight Colorado HS centers (4 rural, 4 urban). Results: Findings indicate that 56% of teachers were overweight or obese, 89% wanted to be more active, and 86.6% desired wellness programming. Motivators consisted of relief of stress, health, and weight control; barriers included time, fatigue, and money; desired topics included nutrition, exercise, and stress management. Motivators, barriers and interest topics were consistent across surveys and interviews. Discussion and Translation to Health Education Practice: HS staff want and need comprehensive wellness programming. Wellness programming should be tailored to include nutrition, physical activity and stress reduction strategies utilizing multifaceted modes of delivery. Improved staff wellness and increased comfort with health and wellness topics could impact the school environment and young children's health.

An Ecological Approach to Exploring Rural Food Access and Active Living for Families With Preschoolers

ObjectiveTo identify factors using the Ecological Model of Childhood Overweight related to accessing nutritious foods and physical activity opportunities from the perspectives of rural parents of preschoolers. MethodsA mixed-methods study using a quantitative survey (Active Where?) and qualitative interviews. Analyzed interview themes provided context to the survey results. The setting was Head Start centers, county human service offices, and Women, Infants, and Children Program sites in rural counties in the Midwest. Rural parents (n = 377) of preschoolers took part in the survey in 7 Midwestern states; 15 similar participants were interviewed from 1 of the states. Transcribed interviews were coded. Frequencies and chi-square tests were computed; significance was set at P < .05. ResultsThe Active Where? survey and interviews revealed that close proximity to recreation spaces and traffic safety issues influenced physical activity. For food access, close proximity to full service grocery stores did not influence access to healthy foods because respondents traveled to urban communities to purchase healthy foods. Conclusions and ImplicationsPublic transportation solutions and enhanced neighborhood safety are potential community-wide obesity prevention strategies in rural communities. However, interventions should be tailored to the community's stage of readiness. Strong social networks should be considered an asset for community change in these regions.

Inputs in the Production of Early Childhood Human Capital: Evidence from Head Start

This paper uses data from a randomized evaluation of Head Start to answer two questions: (i) How much do short-run causal effects vary across Head Start centers? and (ii) Do observed inputs explain this variation? I find that the cross-center standard deviation of cognitive effects is 0.18 test score standard deviations, which is larger than typical estimates of variation in teacher or school effectiveness. Centers offering full-day service and home visiting are more effective, while centers that draw more children from center-based preschool have smaller effects. Other key inputs, including the High/Scope curriculum, teacher education, and class size are not correlated with Head Start effectiveness. (JEL H75, I21, I28, J13, J24)

Math Shelf: A Randomized Trial of a Prekindergarten Tablet Number Sense Curriculum

ABSTRACTResearch Findings: Effective preschool mathematics instruction is especially important for low-income children. Previous research demonstrates that low-income children enter kindergarten behind their middle-income peers. They receive less mathematics support at home and from public preschools. The aim of this study was to test Math Shelf, a tablet intervention designed to improve at-risk preschoolers’ mathematics performance. A total of 100 children participated in a randomized controlled trial in a large urban Head Start center. Intervention students played Math Shelf on tablet computers for 6 weeks, whereas comparison students played the most downloaded and best reviewed preschool math apps on tablets for an equal amount of time. During game play, graduate student researchers supervised intervention and comparison students in separate rooms. Intervention and comparison groups did not differ on pretest assessments. Math Shelf students performed statistically significantly better (Cohen’s d = 0.57) than comparison students at posttest. Practice or Policy: Math Shelf results suggest that teachers can enhance low-income preschoolers’ mathematics knowledge in a relatively short amount of time by incorporating developmentally appropriate tablet interventions.

Feasibility of spirometry testing in preschool children.

The primary purpose of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of obtaining acceptable and reproducible spirometry data in preschool aged children (3-5 years) by technicians without prior experience with spirometry. Two technicians were trained to perform spirometry testing (ndd Easy on-PC) and to administer standardized questionnaires. Preschool aged children were enrolled from two Head Start centers and a local primary care clinic. Subjects were trained in proper spirometry technique and tested until at least two acceptable efforts were obtained or the subject no longer produced acceptable efforts. 200 subjects were enrolled: mean age 4.0 years (± 0.7 SD); age distribution: 51 (25.5%) 3 years old, 103 (51.5%) 4 years old, and 46 (23%) 5 years old. Fifty-six percent male and 75% Hispanic. One hundred thirty (65%) subjects produced at least one acceptable effort on their first visit: 23 (45%) for 3 years old, 67 (65%) for 4 years old, and 40 (87%) for 5 years old. The number of acceptable efforts correlated with age (r = 0.29, P < 0.001) but not gender. The mean number of acceptable efforts on the first visit was 2.66 (± 2.54 SD; range 0-10). One hundred twenty subjects (60%) had two acceptable efforts; 102 had FEV0.5 within 10% or 0.1 L and 104 had FVC within 10% or 0.1 L of best effort. The Asthma Health Screening Survey (AHSS) was 78% sensitive when compared to a specialist exam and 86% compared to a self-reported prior diagnosis of asthma. Technicians without prior experience were able to obtain acceptable and reproducible spirometry results from the preschool aged children; the number of acceptable efforts correlated significantly with age.

Harvest for Healthy Kids Pilot Study: Associations between Exposure to a Farm-to-Preschool Intervention and Willingness to Try and Liking of Target Fruits and Vegetables among Low-Income Children in Head Start

BackgroundMost US children do not meet recommendations for daily fruit and vegetable intake. ObjectiveOur aim was to evaluate the hypothesis that at post-intervention, children exposed to the Harvest for Healthy Kids pilot study will have greater willingness to try and liking of target foods vs children in the comparison group, controlling for baseline differences. DesignWe conducted a quasi-experimental pilot study with comparison, low-intervention, and high-intervention groups. Pre- and post-intervention survey data were collected. Participants/settingThe intervention period was October 2012 to May 2013. The analysis sample was 226 children within the higher-level unit sample of five participating Head Start centers (Portland, OR); 231 children dropped out of or enrolled in Head Start mid-year, were absent during or refused to participate in the assessments, or were missing covariates. InterventionThe comparison group received no intervention components; the low-intervention group received foodservice modifications; the high-intervention group received foodservice modifications and nutrition education. Main outcome measuresWillingness to try and liking of target foods were tested and analyzed as binary variables. Statistical analyses performedMcNemar’s tests were used to assess differences between pre- and post-intervention scores by intervention group. Fixed slope, random intercept multilevel logistic models were used to assess associations between intervention group and post-intervention scores controlling for covariates, adjusting for baseline values, and accounting for center level clustering. ResultsThe difference between pre- and post-intervention willingness to try and liking of target foods was statistically significant for a variety of foods; for example, 44.2% of children liked rutabaga pre-intervention compared with 78.1% post-intervention (P=0.004). Multilevel modeling indicated similar associations. ConclusionsThe Harvest for Healthy Kids pilot study suggests a positive association between the intervention and willingness to try and liking for target foods among study participants. Additional research is needed to assess the impact of the program on fruit and vegetable intake.

Cross-Sectional Relationships Between Household Food Insecurity and Child BMI, Feeding Behaviors, and Public Assistance Utilization Among Head Start Children From Predominantly Hispanic and American Indian Communities in the CHILE Study

Associations between food insecurity and overweight/obesity, feeding behaviors, and public food assistance utilization have been explored to a greater extent among adults and adolescents than among young children. This cross-sectional study examines a subset of pre-intervention implementation data (n = 347) among families participating in the Child Health Initiative for Lifelong Eating and Exercise (CHILE) study conducted in rural New Mexico among predominantly Hispanic and American Indian Head Start centers. No significant relationships emerged between food insecurity and child overweight/obesity, certain feeding behaviors, or public food assistance utilization. Additional research is necessary to understand relationships between food insecurity and child overweight/obesity status, use of public assistance benefits, and certain feeding behaviors among rural preschool-aged children in predominantly Hispanic and American Indian communities.

In situ Training for Increasing Head Start After-Care Teachers’ Use of Praise

This study tested the effects of the direct behavioral consultation in situ training procedure for increasing Head Start teachers’ praise during an after-school program. Participants included four Head Start teachers in one Head Start center. A multiple baseline design across teachers was employed to test the effects of in situ training on teachers’ praise rate. Maintenance of the training procedure was evaluated 1 week following termination of training and again at 1-month follow-up. Results indicated that all teachers delivered praise below the expected rate (i.e., 1 praise statement per minute) during baseline, and in situ training resulted in an immediate and substantial increase in praise for all four teachers. Three of four teachers maintained increased praise during the maintenance phase and again at 1-month follow-up. One teacher’s praise decelerated during maintenance, and that teacher received additional in situ training. However, for that teacher, praise rate again decelerated following the second in situ training phase, and additional consultation procedures were necessary for increasing praise rate. Results are discussed in terms of the consultation research and applied practice.