Hani Terrace Research Articles

Spatial characteristics and restructuring model of the agro-cultural heritage site in the context of culture and tourism integration

Tourism promotes the economic development of agro-cultural heritage sites while causing the problem of spatial alienation, so exploring the spatial alienation problems based on the integration of culture and tourism is of great significance for achieving the sustainable development of tourism in agro-cultural heritage sites. This study took the Yuanyang Hani Terrace agro-cultural heritage site as the research area, constructed the model of the spatial system of the agro-cultural heritage site based on the classical grounded theory, and analyzed the spatial characteristics of the agro-cultural heritage site. The results show that the spatial disorder of the agro-cultural heritage site is caused by the interaction of the imbalance of physical space, the fragmentation of cultural space and the complications of social space. Next, this study constructed the model for the spatial restructuring of the agro-cultural heritage site in the context of culture and tourism integration, with the integration of management systems as a guiding force, the integration of talent systems as a crucial force, the integration of agricultural, cultural and tourism resources as a core force, the integration of the cultural and tourism industries as a driving force, the integration of ecology and culture as a basic force, and the integration of digital scenes as an innovative force. This study expands and deepens the spatial theory of tourist destinations and the knowledge system of cultural heritage tourism, and provides a systematic implementation framework and management tools for the integration of culture and tourism and the high-quality development of agro-cultural heritage sites.

Ethnobotanical study on ritual plants used by Hani people in Yunnan, China

BackgroundThe Hani people, who reside in Yuanyang County, Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan Province, rely on rice terrace farming as their primary livelihood. They utilize plants in various traditional ritual practices. The Hani people have categorized the value of plants based on their natural attributes and have refined the ways of using different plants in specific rituals through practical observations and experiences derived from their agricultural culture. Although the plants used in these rituals hold significant cultural value, they have yet to be studied from the perspective of ethnobotany. This study aims to approach the ritual plants using ethnobotanical methods.MethodsEthnobotanical fieldwork was conducted in 10 villages in Yuanyang County between 2021 and 2023. Data were collected from the local Hani people through semi-structured interviews and participatory observations and 41 informants were interviewed during the field investigations. The frequency of citation (FC) and relative frequency of citation (RFC) were utilized to evaluate the relative importance of ritual plants among the local communities.ResultsA total of 36 plant species, belonging to 18 families and 34 genera, were recorded as being used in 11 ritual practices by the Hani people. Rosaceae, Poaceae, and Fabaceae were found to have the highest number of species. Most of the ritual plants used by the Hani people were collected from the wild. FC and RFC analysis showed that the preferred plants for Hani rituals were Rhus chinensis Mill, Oryza sativa L., Phyllostachys sulphurea (Carr.) A. et C. Riv. and Musa basjoo Siebold & Zucc. ex Iinuma. The 11 rituals are all centered around the performance of people, crops and livestock. The Hani people use plants in different rituals mainly based on their biological attributes.ConclusionsMany rituals of the Hani people are closely related to their production and livelihood, and the plants used in these rituals are deeply rooted in Hani’s traditional ecological knowledge and beliefs. The Hani people’s reverence for nature, respect for life, gratitude towards ancestors, and seeking blessings and disaster prevention for their families, crops, and livestock are all reflected in these rituals and their utilization of ritual plants. The Hani people showcase their agricultural culture in the Honghe Hani Rice Terraces through plant-based ritual performances. Studying ritual plants in the core area of the Hani Rice Terraces is of great significance for protecting the Hani Terrace farming culture. In the future, it is essential to pay more attention to the role of traditional knowledge in biodiversity conservation.

Classification and Value Evaluation of Ecotourism Resources in Agricultural and Cultural Heritage Sites Based on Clustering Algorithm--Taking Hani Terraces Globally Important Agricultural and Cultural Heritage Site as an Example

Abstract Taking the Hani Terraces as an example, this study explores the classification and value evaluation of ecotourism resources in agricultural and cultural heritage sites, applying clustering algorithms with the aim of revealing their ecological, economic and social values and promoting the sustainable development of heritage sites. The study establishes an evaluation system including economic benefits, sightseeing resources, agricultural resources and ecological resources, and applies the gray system theory and cluster analysis method. Through the expert scoring of 27 evaluation indicators, combined with the gray clustering algorithm, the ecotourism resources of Hani Terraces were classified and valued. The results show that the vast majority of indicators (15/27) are rated as excellent, 11 indicators are good, and only 1 indicator is medium. In addition, the research on 80 households showed that the villagers’ perceived index of heritage protection averaged 4.44, the perceived index of ecological problems averaged 3.22, and the perceived index of tourism development averaged 3.84. In summary, the ecotourism resources of Hani Terraces have significant value and the local residents have a positive attitude towards their protection and development.

Extraction of Hani terraces based on Sentinel-2 and GF-2 images in Honghe prefecture, Yunnan province

Monitoring Hani terraces quickly and accurately using remote sensing technology is crucial for the protecting World Cultural Heritage Sites. However, single remote sensing image is affected by the mutual constraints of temporal and spatial resolution, making it difficult to concurrently integrate key phenological and spatial information for accurate extraction. In this study, GF-2 and Sentinel-2 images are used to extract terraces based on objected-based image analysis. Firstly, the spatial and phenological features of objects were obtained by multi-resolution segmentation using GF-2 image. Secondly, the optimal spatial and key phenological features were optimized by recursive feature elimination cross-validation and separation index, respectively. Finally, all optimized features were adopted to extract terraces using random forest (RF) and support vector machine (SVM) classifiers, respectively. Comparing deep learning and traditional machine learning methods, the proposed method using RF achieved the highest accuracy with Kappa coefficient and overall accuracy of 89.45 and 94.73%, respectively.

An integrated mechanism and challenges of mountainous sustainable development: A review of Hani Terraces, China

AbstractMountainous agriculture supports 15% of the global population, but its sustainability is facing challenges with the social transition. Honghe Hani Rice Terrace System (HHRTS), China, a double world‐level heritage, performs strong resilience to challenges. Available studies on HHRTS examines its sustainability from some perspectives but lack a systemic elaboration on its sustainable mechanism. This study extensively examines the literature on HHRTS and offers a comprehensive analysis of its sustainability. The findings suggest that mountainous agricultural sustainability depends on the support from relatively enough water and land resources and diverse employment based on these resources (economic sustainability), the environmental stability based on reasonable landscape structure, rich biodiversity and ecological farming methods (environmental sustainability), and social stability based on the well‐developing social structure, efficient management system, and relevant cultural restraint and guidance (social sustainability) as well as the dynamic interaction among the three dimensions. Among them, traditional knowledge and cultures play a positive role in maintaining the stability of terraced landscapes, but their role is weakening with industrialization and urbanization. This study provides a systemic explanation of a dynamic evolution mechanism that the economic and social factors drive local people to maintain a mountainous agricultural system from the agricultural society to the industrial society based on the theory of planned behavior. This study also provides abundant local knowledge, experiences, and an analytical framework for reconstructing a sustainable mountainous agricultural system in the socio‐economic transformation stage.

The Cattle Encountering the Rational Economic Man: Reflections on the Landscape Heritage of Hani Ethnic Terraces in Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture

In the villages from the core area of the “Cultural Landscape of Honghe Hani Terraces”, a world cultural heritage, cattle of a single breed have been raised, the number of cattle raised reduced and there has been an unbalanced female-male ratio, which all resulted from the rational economic choice of villagers. The decrease in cattle is a representation of the crisis of the present farming cultural landscape. The replacement of cattle farming by tractor farming has greatly reduced the landscape value of terraces. The continuous growth of economic rationality does not necessarily lead to an all-round development of the society, and social governance aiming at improving the well-being of people in heritage sites has become indispensable. As the state is the main body responsible for declaring a world cultural heritage and protecting it, in order to realize its value fully and let its universal value be recognized by mankind, the relevant state departments should assume the responsibility of improving the quality of life of local people in an institutionalized manner.

Genetic Diversity and Association Mapping of Grain-Size Traits in Rice Landraces from the Honghe Hani Rice Terraces System in Yunnan Province.

The Honghe Hani Rice Terraces System (HHRTS) of Yunnan Province is an important agricultural and cultural heritage landscape. Until now, a large number of local rice landraces have been planted. Mining excellent genes contained in these landraces provides a reference for variety improvement and new variety breeding. In this study, 96 rice landraces collected from the Hani terraces were planted in Honghe Mengzi, Yunnan Province, in 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2021, and five major grain traits were measured and analyzed. The genomic variation of 96 rice landraces was scanned by 201 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. The genetic diversity, population structure, and genetic relationships of the natural population were analyzed. The mixed linear model (MLM) method of the TASSEL software was used to analyze the associations between markers and traits. A total of 936 alleles were amplified by 201 pairs of SSR primers. The average number of observed alleles (Na), the effective number of alleles (Ne), Shannon's information index (I), heterozygosity (H), and the polymorphism information content (PIC) per marker were 4.66, 2.71, 1.08, 0.15, and 0.55, respectively. Ninety-six landraces were divided into two groups by population structure, clustering, and principal component analysis, and indica rice was the main group. The coefficients of variation of the five traits ranged from 6.80 to 15.24%, and their broad heritabilities were more than 70%. In addition, there were positive correlations among the same grain traits between different years. Through MLM analysis, 2, 36, 7, 7, and 4 SSR markers were significantly associated with grain length (GL), grain width (GW), grain thickness (GT), grain length-width ratio (LWR), and thousand-grain weight (TGW), respectively. The explanation rates of phenotypic variation were 16.31 (RM449, Chr. 1)-23.51% (RM316, Chr. 9), 10.84 (RM523, Chr. 3; RM161/RM305, Chr. 5)-43.01% (RM5496, Chr. 1), 11.98 (RM161/RM305, Chr. 5)-24.72% (RM275, Chr. 6), 12.68 (RM126, Chr. 8)-36.96% (RM5496, Chr. 1), and 17.65 (RM4499, Chr. 2)-26.32% (RM25, Chr. 8), respectively. The associated markers were distributed on 12 chromosomes of the genome.

Temp-Spatial Heterogeneity of Water Recharge and Its Stable Mechanisms of the Mountainous Rice Terraces in East Asia Monsoon Region

The paddy field water recharge system and the mechanism of its stability are key scientific issues related to reducing the threat to global food security and enhancing the well-being of humans. In this study, we sampled the field water, precipitation, and groundwater in the Hani terrace areas and measured the values of hydrogen and oxygen stable isotopes. The results indicated that precipitation and groundwater were the main sources of terrace water recharge in the Hani terrace area. Spatially, the terrace areas were divided into rain-fed terraces, which were mainly recharged by precipitation, and spring-fed terraces, where groundwater was the primary source of recharge. Temporally, there were two different recharge periods: the rain-fed season (>70% recharge from precipitation) and the spring-fed season (>30% recharge from groundwater). The temporally alternating recharge periods of the spring-fed and rain-fed seasons and the interconnected spatial distribution of rain-fed and spring-fed types were essential to maintain stable water sources in the Hani terraces. Meanwhile, the spatial heterogeneity of groundwater recharge and the timing of agricultural cultivation adjusted the system to some extent. Rice cultivation will be sustainable if the changes in monsoonal precipitation due to global climate change align with the anthropogenic agricultural cultivation cycle, including land preparation, planting, growing, and harvesting. This is the key reason that the mountainous rice cultivation systems of the Hani terraces have lasted for thousands of years under the influence of the East Asian monsoon.

Valuation of Ecosystem Services for the Sustainable Development of Hani Terraces: A Rice-Fish-Duck Integrated Farming Model.

As a complementary and symbiotic agro-ecological cycle system, a nature-based integrated rice–fish–duck farming ecosystem was developed in the Honghe Hani Rice Terraces. The main research objective was to evaluate the ecosystem services based on case studies of the Hani integrated rice–fish–duck terraced farming system and determine its potential and its importance as an ecological asset. We developed a valuation model to assess the value of the integrated farming system based on the three aspects of provisioning, regulation and maintenance, and cultural services; we selected eight groups and 10 indictors to evaluate the ecosystem services of the integrated ecosystem in Honghe Hani Rice Terraces was 3.316 billion CNY, of which the provisioning service value was 1.76 billion CNY, the regulation and maintenance service value was 1.32 billion CNY, and the cultural services value was 230.85 million CNY. The evaluation will be useful as a theoretical reference for poverty alleviation policy makers in similar poverty-stricken areas, enabling them to better protect and promote this mode of farming and further promote the protection of the natural environment and cultural heritage alongside the sustainable development of natural resources and human well-being.

Progresses and Perspectives of the Resource Evaluation Related to Agri-Cultural Heritage Tourism

The scientific evaluation of tourism resources is not only an important prerequisite for the development of agri-cultural heritage tourism (AHT), but it can also promote the conservation and management of Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (IAHS). With the goal of providing scientific support for the sustainable management of tourism resources, this review systematically analyzes the overall situation, research regions, developmental timeline trends, key fields and hot topics of resource evaluation research related to AHT over 2005–2020. With a comprehensive perspective that incorporates both traditional literature review and quantitative literature review, the study revealed four important aspects of AHT research. (1) Relevant articles could be divided into two phases, a development-oriented period (2005–2012) and a conservation-oriented period (2013–2020). (2) GIAHS accounts for the absolute majority (about 66.7%) of relevant studies. In particular, Longji Terraces System, Hani terraces system and Dong's Rice-Fish-Duck System were the research hotspots IAHS, and Yunnan, Zhejiang and Guangxi were the research hotspot provinces. (3) Terraced landscapes and tea culture were the most popular themes in tourism resource evaluation, while sports tourism, tea culture tourism and study tours are becoming the new trends in IAHS sites. (4) Research methods have undergone a shift from qualitative to quantitative approaches, and a combination of these two in an interdisciplinary manner is becoming a new research trend. By reviewing and prospecting the relevant literature, this study not only makes a unique contribution to the tourism resource evaluation of IAHS, but also helps to enrich the relevant evaluation theories and further promote the sustainable development of heritage tourism from theoretical and methodological perspectives.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in soils from typical paddy fields of China: Occurrence, influencing factors and human health risks

The contamination of paddy soils is of great concern since it links to human health via food supply. Limited knowledge is available on PCB residue characteristics and the associated health risks in paddy soils under various environmental conditions. In this study, a soil sampling campaign was conducted in three typical paddy fields, i.e., Sanjiang Plain (SP), Taihu Plain (TP) and Hani Terrace (HT), crossing a transect of 4000 km in China. The concentrations of 29 quantified PCBs varied from 58.6 to 1930 pg/g in paddy soils, with samples at TP showing the highest burden. Tri-CBs were the major homologue group at SP and HT, whereas hexa-CBs at TP. Altitude, temperature, soil organic matter content and soil conductivity well explained the variations in PCB concentrations among sites. The homologue profiles of soil PCBs followed the fractionation theory. In addition, soil conductivity was found to be negatively correlated to low-chlorinated PCBs and positively to high-chlorinated congeners. Furthermore, the toxicities of soil PCBs and the exposure risks through rice intake were estimated. Higher toxicity equivalent quantities and hazard indexes were found at SP than TP and HT, with over one third of the samples displaying health risks. The results of this work highlight the necessity to better understand the occurrence characteristics and the associated health risks of PCBs in soils of rice-growing regions.

Influence of landscape pattern on elevation effect of δ18O in surface water in Hani Terrace

With the Quanfuzhuang River basin located at Hani Rice Terrace core region as study area, we analyzed the isotopic composition and the effects of 12 surface water sampling sites for the forest landscape type and terrace landscape type from May 2015 to April 2016. The results showed that: 1) For the variation of isotope composition, both the average value and the variation range of δ18O in surface water under forest patches were smaller than that under terrace patches. 2) The overall elevation effect of the hydrogen and oxygen stable isotopes in surface water was obvious, except that in August and March, which could be expressed as the linear regression equation δ18O=-0.012H+13.84 (r=-0.83, n=12). 3) The altitude gradient of δ18O in surface water was -1.2‰·(100 m)-1, which was not the true altitude gradient affected by precipitation but by landscape gradient of δ18O in surface water between forest patches and terrace patches. 4) Under the "Forest-Terrace" landscape pattern, the δ18O differences in surface water between forest patches and terrace patches enhanced the elevation effect. Therefore, when landscape heterogeneity was strong, isotopic effect was strengthened, even with opposite isotope effect.

Research on the evolution of water resources governance in tourism destination from the perspective of hierarchy: A case study of Hani Terraces

Research on the evolution of water resources governance in tourism destination from the perspective of hierarchy: A case study of Hani Terraces

Food sources of common carp in a Hani Terrace integrated rice-fish system (Yunnan Province, China)

Integrated rice-carp farming is commonly employed on Hani terraces in China. However, the altitude within a Hani terrace can vary greatly, and thus the solutions for such a farming approach must vary with altitude. Research on common carp food sources in an integrated rice-carp farm at different altitudes helps to understand the food requirements of carp across periods and provides guidance for production. In this study, the composition of eukaryotic food sources of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) growing on Hani rice terraces at low and high altitudes (570 m and 1840 m) from May to August 2019 was surveyed by high-throughput DNA sequencing. The 18 s v4 gene sequences were amplified to provide 2243,095 valid reads and 2485 operational taxonomic units. In addition, the relative abundance of the gut contents of each food source varied by month and altitude. Chlorella, Necator, Oedogonium, Oryza and Scenedesmus were the dominant C. carpio food sources at the high altitude, while Chironomus, Gieysztoria, Scenedesmus, Oryza, and Lemna were the dominant species at the low altitude. The Lemna biomass identified in the C. carpio gut contents in the low altitude terrace decreased from 39.75% in June to 0.05% in August, while the Oryza biomass increased with time. The Oryza biomass observed in the gut contents of C. carpio growing in high and low altitude terraced fields increased with time. Rice pests, including the rice gall midge, rice bugs, nematodes, and chironomid larvae were found in the stomachs of C. carpio in the high and low altitude terraced fields. The maximum proportion of chironomid larvae in the gut contents of C. carpio in the low altitude terraces reached 39.29%, while the maximum proportion of nematodes was 5.38%. However, only chironomid larvae and nematodes were found in the gut contents of C. carpio growing in the high altitude terrace, reaching maximum proportions of 0.17% and 3.63%, respectively. Furthermore, a variety of rice pests were detected in the gut contents of C. carpio, indicating that C. carpio effectively preyed on rice pests and reduced rice diseased in the integrated rice-carp farming terraces.

Perceptions of Local People Toward Wild Edible Plant Gathering and Consumption: Insights from the Q-Method in Hani Terraces

Wild edible plants (WEPs) can provide a variety of provisioning services and cultural services but they are currently under-utilized. Understanding farmers' perceptions of the collection and consumption of wild edible plant resources is essential for promoting local socio-ecological system resilience and local wild plant resource use. This paper uses the Q-method to investigate the main perspectives of farmers toward collecting and consuming wild edible plants in the Honghe Hani Terraces region of Yunnan Province. This analysis identified four main perspective types among the farmers, including market-driven, household user-driven, cultural service seekers, and tradition followers. It revealed the main factors that limit and facilitate farmers' WEP collection and consumption, including limitations due to loss of traditional knowledge, and changes in socioeconomic conditions that negatively affect WEP collection and consumption; while, on the other hand, the demand for WEP-related cultural services and the presence of a strong culture slowed down changes in dietary structure, which in turn have maintained WEP collection and consumption. The Q-method can help in identifying the relationship between community residents and local wild plant resource use in rapidly transitioning areas and in identifying the barriers that affect the resilience of local socio-ecological systems.

Biodiversity and sustainability of the integrated rice-fish system in Hani terraces, Yunnan province, China

Agricultural nonpoint source pollution is a critical issue that causes eutrophication in water bodies, due to the application of fertilizers. The traditional rice-fish coculture systems may develop a novel sustainable agriculture. The present study was undertaken to understand the ecological mechanisms of integrated fish farming especially water chemistry, dynamics of plankton, and benthic populations and their community compositions. In the rice-fish coculture system (RF), the total nitrogen in the water was higher compared to the rice monoculture system (RM), but significantly lower than in conventional fertilized rice farming. Dissolved oxygen (DO) presented a significant “Month x Treatment” interaction (p < 0.05) with differences across sampling period (p < 0.05). Higher DO concentrations and lower ammonium nitrogen levels suggested better water quality. The dominant zoobenthos were Chironomus spp. and oligochaetes worms in RF, which indicated the mesotrophic water levels. The plankton biodiversity and soil benthic fauna were dynamic in the integrated farming. More plankton species in RF were discovered and could serve as natural feeds for fish. A complementary use of nitrogen (N) between rice and fish in RF results in low N fertilizer application and low N release into the environment. These findings provide unique insights into how water environment could be improved and how the integrated farming practice could balance the production and environmental contamination.

Tourism Imaginary and Landscape at Heritage Site: A Case in Honghe Hani Rice Terraces, China

The relationship between tourism and landscape has been extensively studied, but a conceptual framework to study cultural relationships between tourism and landscape is not specified in the literature. On the basis of the theory of social imaginary, this article takes China’s Honghe Hani Terraces as an example to study how the landscape is imagined in tourism and the potential cultural conflicts. Content analysis on tourist discourses and images in social media was conducted in order to identify tourist imaginaries about the landscape. A gap between tourism imaginaries and the Hani landscape was found: the latter was imagined as an overlooking view of stereotyped terraced imagery, a schema separated and independent from other landscape components. In-depth interviews on stakeholders and participant observations were used to study the production process of tourism imaginaries. Findings show that the viewing platforms and roads provided an enclave space from local contexts, wherein the Hani landscape was staged for gazing. The tourism company’s strategies dominated the process, leading to local communities’ marginalization and threats to the landscape. We suggest that tourism planning and marketing should maintain the integrity of landscape in tourism imaginaries and empower the local communities, thereby reducing cultural tensions between tourism and the landscape.

哈尼梯田湿地生态系统健康评价指标体系构建

为了获得梯田湿地生态系统健康评价的指标体系，以云南红河哈尼梯田湿地为例，基于对该湿地维持机制的分析，构建了包括生态特征、功能整合、社会与政治3个方面共20个指标的健康评价指标体系以及各个指标的健康阈值分级表。同时，利用AHP层次分析法确定了各指标的权重，运用综合评价法对梯田湿地生态系统的健康状态进行评价。本研究构建的评价指标体系解决了哈尼梯田湿地生态系统缺乏健康评价指标体系和支持理论的问题，为评价该类型湿地生态系统的健康状态提供指导方法，能够依据其评价结果为后续湿地健康质量的提升及湿地的可持续利用发展提出改进策略。;Wetland plays an extremely important role in maintaining biodiversity, improving water quality, regulating microclimate, and protecting water and soil. With the unreasonable human activities, the ecological problems of wetland are becoming more and more serious, so the evaluation and diagnosis of wetland ecosystem health is extremely urgent. Hani terrace wetland is a special artificial paddy field wetland in southwest mountain area. It has not only important wetland ecological function value, but also agricultural production and national cultural value. At present, the research on Hani terrace wetland ecosystem mainly involves economic culture, ecological security and landscape tourism, while the research on ecosystem health evaluation is few. By analyzing the maintenance mechanism of the ecological balance of Hani terrace wetland and establishing a scientific health evaluation system to evaluate the health of the wetland, we can better understand the health status of the wetland, provide scientific support for the planning and utilization of the wetland and promote the sustainable development of the wetland. The unique vertical spatial structure of forest-village-terrace-river in the Hani terrace wetland is the maintenance mechanism of healthy balance of wetland ecosystem. Each part is independent and indivisible, with integrity. At this time, Hani terrace wetland ecosystem is not only the ecological subsystem of terrace wetland, but also the health evaluation of the whole forest-village-terrace river system. Based on the analysis of the maintenance mechanism, this paper constructed a health evaluation index system of 20 indicators including ecological characteristics, functional integration, social and political aspects and a health threshold grading table of each indicator. Meanwhile, AHP analytic hierarchy process is used to determine the weight of each index, and comprehensive evaluation method is used to evaluate the health status of Hani terrace wetland ecosystem later. The evaluation index system constructed in this study solves the problem of the lack of health evaluation index system and provides a guiding method for the evaluation of the health status of this type of wetland ecosystem. According to the evaluation results, improvement strategies can be proposed for the subsequent improvement of wetland health quality and sustainable utilization development of wetlands.

Using Soil Water Stable Isotopes to Investigate Soil Water Movement in a Water Conservation Forest in Hani Terrace

Water conservation forests significantly contribute to the stability of mountain agricultural ecosystems in Hani Terrace. In this study, we analyzed the relationship between the stable isotopic composition of soil water and precipitation to determine the mechanisms of soil water movement in the small watershed of Quanfuzhuang. We observed significant seasonal variations in soil water sources: antecedent precipitation was the dominant supply during the dry season, and current precipitation dominated during the rainy season. The recharge ratio of precipitation to soil water in the grassland was significantly higher than that in the arbor land and shrubland. The influence of water infiltration, old and new soil water mixing, and soil evaporation on the soil water stable isotopes gradually decreased from the surface (0–20 cm) to the deep (60–80 cm) soil. We observed significant seasonal variability in average soil water δ18O in the upper 0–60 cm and lower variability at 60–100 cm. The average soil water δ18O was generally higher in the dry season than in the rainy season. The mixing of old and new water is a continuous and cumulative process that is impacted by soil structure, soil texture, and precipitation events. We therefore identified a significant time delay in soil water supply with increasing soil depth. Moreover, the piston flow of soil water co-occurred with preferential flow, and the latter was the dominant supply during the rainy season.

Agricultural eco-compensation may not necessarily reduce chemical inputs

The eco-compensation targeting agricultural non-point source pollution is considered to have a positive role in the farmland environment. However, the effect depends on how the farmers respond and implement the policies. This paper aimed to understand whether the agricultural eco-compensation changes the farmers' planting decision and to what extent it affects the input of chemicals. Taking World Heritage, Hani Terraces in southwest China as an example, this paper established a multi-objective production decision model for farmers to analyze the impact of different compensation standards on farmers' planting decisions and welfare. The results showed that, when the eco-compensation standard is relatively low, farmers tend to adopt the planting structure with higher income to make up for the loss caused by reducing chemicals input. With the increase of eco-compensation standard, the input intensity of chemicals (per unit area) continues to decrease. However, the total amount of chemical inputs increases first and then decreases as the planting structure changes. That means, agricultural eco-compensation may not necessarily reduce chemical input. The results show the importance to pay attention to the behavior changes when eco-compensation is designed and implemented and will have a positive effect on the sustainability of the eco-compensation policy.