Hairstreak Research Articles

Immature stages of the Zebra Hairstreak butterfly, Arawacus separata (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae): a model organism for studies on mimicry and mutualism

Hairstreak butterflies are model organisms in evolutionary biology due to the variety of predator-avoidance strategies they possess, including false head mimicry and symbiosis with ants, both of which Zebra Hairstreaks employ. Natural history information is basic for the generation of hypothesis-driven research in ecology and evolution, especially for holometabolous organisms. Here, the complete life cycle of the Zebra Hairstreak Arawacus separata is described for the first time. The natural history records, including citizen science, for other Zebra Hairstreaks species in Eumaeini were also reviewed. Host plant records for A. separata indicate that its caterpillars are oligophagous on Solanaceae, being locally specialized on the shrub Cestrum strigilatum (Solanaceae). Development from egg to adult was found to last ~30 days. Caterpillars underwent four instars with cryptic coloration and texture. The larval tegument is covered by short dendritic setae and pore cupola organs (PCOs), and, from the second instar on, shows a dorsal nectary organ (DNO). Caterpillars live on plants surrounded by ants throughout their entire ontogeny. Facultative symbiosis was observed in all instars with seven ant species in four genera. Myrmecophily is potentiated by honeydew-producing hemipterans and attractive sap of leaf lesions. Territory occupancy of males and non-aerial contests suggest a neglected role of sexual selection in the evolution of the false-head traits. Due to the typical false-head wing coloration pattern and myrmecophily, A. separata is proposed as a model organism to study mimicry and mutualism.

Evaluating the use of UV photoluminescence for surveying the immature stages of rare butterflies: a case study using the Black Hairstreak (Satyrium pruni)

Conservation of rare and elusive butterflies can benefit from the use of contrasting survey techniques to confirm their presence and to understand the lifecycle in more detail. This case study trialed different survey techniques for all stages of the lifecycle (ova, larva, pupa and adult) to assess their value for monitoring Black Hairstreak (Satyrium pruni) populations in Britain.Daytime surveys for well camouflaged ova, larvae and pupae yielded little success. However, the novel use of UV flashlights in nocturnal surveys for photoluminescent larvae was found to be an effective technique when compared to surveying adult butterflies. Critically, combined surveying for larvae and adults provides unique insights into the behaviour of the species at different stages in the lifecycle and, when used in combination, gives a more holistic understanding of the true nature of a colony of Black Hairstreak butterflies.Implications for insect conservation: our results show that the novel use of nocturnal surveys for larvae with UV flashlights is a valuable technique for surveying for Black Hairstreak butterflies. It therefore has potential to be used in conjunction with other survey techniques for assessing the health of a colony and supporting conservation at different stages of the lifecycle of the butterfly.

American Girl Dolls as Professionals

American Girl Dolls as Professionals

Wide-gamut structural colours on oakblue butterflies by naturally tuned photonic nanoarchitectures.

The iridescent structural colours of butterflies, generated by photonic nanoarchitectures, often function as species-specific sexual signals; therefore, they are reproduced precisely from generation to generation. The wing scales of oakblue hairstreak butterflies (genus Arhopala, Theclinae, Lycaenidae, Lepidoptera) contain multi-layer photonic nanoarchitectures, which can generate a wide range of structural colours, from violet to green. By scanning (SEM) and cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy (TEM) investigation, the colour tuning mechanism of the cover scales was explored. We revealed that the characteristic size change of structural elements in similar photonic nanoarchitectures led to different structural colours that were examined by various reflectance spectrophotometry techniques. The measured structural properties of the naturally tuned photonic nanoarchitectures were used to calculate wing reflectances, which were compared with the measurement results. We found that the simulated structural colours were systematically redshifted by 95-126 nm as compared with the measured normal-incidence reflectance results. This is attributed to the swelling of the chitinous multi-layer structures during the standard TEM sample preparation and the tilt of the cover scales, which both affect the apparent layer thicknesses in the TEM cross-sections. We proposed a simulation correction and compared the results with the layer thicknesses measured on cryogenically prepared non-embedded SEM cross-sections.

A review of the distribution and ecology of the elusive Brown Hairstreak butterfly Thecla betulae (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae) in the Iberian Peninsula

The Brown Hairstreak (Thecla betulae L.) is one of the least observed butterflies of the Palaearctic region, even though its distribution spans from Portugal in the west, to Russia and Korea in the far east. Adults are arboreal and seldom descend to ground level. As a result, this species is mostly monitored via the detection of eggs on the food plant during wintertime. In the Iberian Peninsula, this species was largely unknown until very recently, but a recent burst of regional studies in Spain has begun bridging this gap. However, their focused nature and a still incomplete knowledge on T. betulae in Portugal promoted the need for an integrative study at the Iberian scale. Here, we carried out a full literature review on the distribution, ecology and behaviour of T. betulae in Portugal and Spain. Complemented with field work in Portugal, we revealed an almost continuous distribution in the northern third of Iberia, whilst populations further south are mostly mountain-bound. In order to help with future discovery of new populations, we built a species-distribution model relating its occurrence with bioclimatic variables. This model accurately explains the current known occupation of the territory and highlights other areas where the species may potentially be found. Finally, we found evidence of a broadening of the species’ niche through the local use of an hitherto unknown food plant. This study sets a new knowledge baseline for future works and conservation of T. betulae through southern Europe.

A modified diet to support conservation of the Atala hairstreak butterfly (Eumaeus atala Poey).

Raising insects in a laboratory for release into the wild is a common conservation practice, but maintaining breeding colonies year‐round can be limited by seasonal food availability. Food availability is particularly challenging for insects which depend on specific host plants. For example, our early efforts to rear the imperiled Atala hairstreak butterfly (Eumaeus atala Poey) resulted in colony failure during winter due to lack of food. To overcome this barrier, we developed a modified freeze‐dried host plant diet to support the colony. The diet consisted of reconstituted freeze‐dried leaves and stems from fresh‐growth coontie (Zamia integrifolia), the host plant for the Atala butterflies. We fed larvae less than 9 mm on this freeze‐dried diet and transferred them to live coontie plants after they were more than 9 mm. We reared a colony of Atala butterflies using these methods for 859 days, resulting in more than 3400 animals released into the wild. Comparing colony counts during that time period to the 548 days we reared them without modified freeze‐dried diet showed a clear benefit in using freeze‐dried diet. A growth trial (N = 40) of larvae fed on only freeze‐dried diet compared to larvae fed on fresh coontie cuttings found no significant difference in larval or pupal development between groups (p = 0.71 and p = 0.47, respectively). We, therefore, conclude that the freeze‐dried diet provided an appropriate alternative for Atala colonies when fresh growth from the host plant is unavailable, and we recommend use of this technique for raising other host plant‐dependent insect species of conservation concern.

A switch to feeding on cycads generates parallel accelerated evolution of toxin tolerance in two clades of Eumaeus caterpillars (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

We assembled a complete reference genome of Eumaeus atala, an aposematic cycad-eating hairstreak butterfly that suffered near extinction in the United States in the last century. Based on an analysis of genomic sequences of Eumaeus and 19 representative genera, the closest relatives of Eumaeus are Theorema and Mithras We report natural history information for Eumaeus, Theorema, and Mithras Using genomic sequences for each species of Eumaeus, Theorema, and Mithras (and three outgroups), we trace the evolution of cycad feeding, coloration, gregarious behavior, and other traits. The switch to feeding on cycads and to conspicuous coloration was accompanied by little genomic change. Soon after its origin, Eumaeus split into two fast evolving lineages, instead of forming a clump of close relatives in the phylogenetic tree. Significant overlap of the fast evolving proteins in both clades indicates parallel evolution. The functions of the fast evolving proteins suggest that the caterpillars developed tolerance to cycad toxins with a range of mechanisms including autophagy of damaged cells, removal of cell debris by macrophages, and more active cell proliferation.

A record of a hairstreak butterfly Chrysozephyrus hisamatsusanus at the northern foot of Mt. Fuji, Yamanashi Prefecture, and long-distance dispersal

A record of a hairstreak butterfly <i>Chrysozephyrus hisamatsusanus</i> at the northern foot of Mt. Fuji, Yamanashi Prefecture, and long-distance dispersal

High genetic drift in endangered northern peripheral populations of the Behr's hairstreak butterfly (Satyrium behrii)

Abstract The persistence and adaptation of leading‐edge peripheral populations may be critical for allowing species to shift their range limits under climate change. However, peripheral populations are potentially vulnerable to genetic, demographic, and environmental stochasticity. Here, we characterise genetic variation across space and among years in northern peripheral populations of the Behr's hairstreak butterfly in British Columbia, Canada. This butterfly is dependent on antelope‐brush ecosystems that are threatened in this part of the world and is federally listed as Endangered in Canada. Using a large panel of amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) genetic markers, we found low diversity in these populations. We also detected a high degree of year‐to‐year variation in allele frequencies, resulting in low effective population size estimates. Our findings suggest that Canadian populations of the Behr's hairstreak experience high genetic drift and may be vulnerable to genetic stochasticity. Unstable demography, low effective population size, and low genetic diversity in these populations could impede their adaptation to rapidly changing environmental conditions and contribute to a contraction of the species' range under climate change.

Notes on the hairstreak butterflies Euaspa Moore, 1884 (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) with new distribution records to the Indian eastern Himalaya

The genus Euaspa Moore, 1884 (Lycaenidae: Theclinae: Theclini) of Zephyrus Hairstreak butterflies is represented by 14 species worldwide. Among these, four species were recorded from the Indian mainland. In this paper, E. motokii Koiwaya, 2002, previously known only from the Kachin State of Myanmar, is reported for the first time from Arunachal Pradesh in India. Also, E. mikamii Koiwaya, 2002 is recorded for the second time from India since the collection of the holotype in 1991 from the eastern Himalaya.

False head complexity and evidence of predator attacks in male and female hairstreak butterflies (Lepidoptera: Theclinae: Eumaeini) from Mexico.

In many butterfly species, the posterior end of the hindwings of individuals perching with their wings closed resembles a butterfly head. This “false head” pattern is considered an adaptation to deflect predator attacks to less vulnerable parts of the body. The presence of symmetrical damage in left and right wings is considered evidence of failed predator attacks to perching butterflies. In this research, we tested the prediction derived from the deflection hypothesis that the degree of resemblance of the false head area (FH) to a real head, as measured by the number of FH “components” (eyespots, “false antennae”, modified outline of the FH area and lines converging on the FH area) present in the hindwings, is positively correlated to the frequency of symmetrical damage in the FH area. We studied specimens from two scientific collections of butterflies of the subfamily Theclinae (Lycaenidae) belonging to the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (Colección Nacional de Insectos [CNIN] and Museo de Zoología, Facultad de Ciencias [MZFC]). We scored the presence of symmetrical damage in a sample of 20,709 specimens (CNIN: 3,722; MZFC: 16,987) from 126 species (CNIN: 78 species; MZFC: 117 species; 71 species shared by both collections) whose hindwings vary in the number of FH components, and found that, as predicted, the proportion of specimens with symmetrical damage increases as the number of FH components increases. We also tested the hypothesis that behavioural differences between the sexes makes males more prone to receive predator attacks and, thus, we predicted a higher frequency of symmetrical damage in the FH of males than in that of females. We found that the frequency of symmetrical damage was not significantly different between males and females, suggesting that behavioural differences between the sexes produce no differences in the risk of being attacked. Overall, our results provide support to the idea that the FH of butterflies is an adaptation that deflects predator attacks to less vulnerable parts of the body in both sexes.

Wax Myrtle, Morella cerifera Synonym: Myrica cerifera

Wax myrtle is one the most widespread plants in Florida, and it is found in coastal states west to Texas and north to New Jersey. The wax found around seeds can be melted down to make candles. The fruits of wax myrtle are important for birds and other wildlife, and the plant is a larval host for the banded hairstreak and redbanded hairstreak butterflies (Satyrium calanus and Calycopis cecrops, respectively) (Lotts and Naberhaus 2017). Wax myrtle has been shown to contribute substantial nitrogen addition to soils via symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing microorganisms residing in soils (Permar and Fisher 1983).https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/sg176&#x0D; This publication is derived from information in SGEB-75/SG156, Dune Restoration and Enhancement for the Florida Panhandle, by Debbie Miller, Mack Thetford, Christina Verlinde, Gabriel Campbell, and Ashlynn Smith. https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/sg156.

Hairstreak butterflies (Lepidoptera, Lycaenidae) and evolution of their male secondary sexual organs.

Hairstreak butterflies in the Atlides Sectionof the Eumaeini are biologically notable for a diverse array of male secondary sexual organs. A "species recognition" hypothesis postulates that females use these organs to choose between conspecific and non-conspecific males, thereby promoting reproductive isolation. Alternately, a "sexual selection" hypothesis posits that females use these organs to choose among conspecific males. These hypotheses need not be mutually exclusive but make different predictions about the evolutionary gain and loss of male secondary sexual organs. We analysed most of the Atlides Section(Theclinae, Eumaeini) phylogenetically. Sister lineages were sympatric at 22 of 37 nodes. Nine evolutionary gains occurred in lineages that were sympatric with their phylogenetic sister, and one occurred in a lineage that was allopatric/parapatric with its sister. By contrast, seven of ten evolutionary losses occurred in lineages that were allopatric/parapatric with their sisters. These results are significantly different from those predicted by a sexual selection hypothesis. We conclude that male secondary sexual organs in the Atlides Sectionfunction primarily for species recognition and thereby promote sympatric diversification.

Experimental evidence for optimal hedgerow cutting regimes for Brown hairstreak butterflies

Abstract The Brown hairstreak butterfly has declined in range and abundance over the past 50 years, leading to designated conservation status in several European countries including England and Wales. The Brown hairstreak's decline has been linked to changes in hedgerow management, based on mortality of eggs over winter and female oviposition preferences. We assessed Brown hairstreak egg abundance in late winter over 4 years in response to hedgerow management treatments to manipulate the frequency, timing, and the intensity of trimming (reduced intensity resulting in an annual increase of approximately 10 cm in hedge height and width), using a field experiment with a randomised block design. Hedgerow plots cut every year to a standard height and width had the lowest Brown hairstreak egg abundance; this is the most common hedgerow management outside agri‐environment schemes (AES). Cutting hedgerow plots at a reduced intensity nearly doubled the number of surviving eggs in late winter. Plots cut at a reduced frequency in autumn (once every 3 years), which forms part of current English AES, had 1.3 times more eggs than those cut annually. Current AES management prescriptions are likely to benefit the Brown hairstreak, but its requirements need to be balanced with those of other taxa in relation to the timing of hedgerow cutting. Cutting hedges at a reduced intensity has previously been shown to benefit the wider Lepidoptera community as well as Brown hairstreak butterflies. Reduced intensity cutting does not currently form part of AES hedgerow prescriptions, but could be considered for inclusion in future schemes.

When COI barcodes deceive: complete genomes reveal introgression in hairstreaks.

Two species of hairstreak butterflies from the genus Calycopis are known in the United States: C. cecrops and C. isobeon Analysis of mitochondrial COI barcodes of Calycopis revealed cecrops-like specimens from the eastern US with atypical barcodes that were 2.6% different from either USA species, but similar to Central American Calycopis species. To address the possibility that the specimens with atypical barcodes represent an undescribed cryptic species, we sequenced complete genomes of 27 Calycopis specimens of four species: C. cecrops, C. isobeon, C. quintana and C. bactra Some of these specimens were collected up to 60 years ago and preserved dry in museum collections, but nonetheless produced genomes as complete as fresh samples. Phylogenetic trees reconstructed using the whole mitochondrial and nuclear genomes were incongruent. While USA Calycopis with atypical barcodes grouped with Central American species C. quintana by mitochondria, nuclear genome trees placed them within typical USA C. cecrops in agreement with morphology, suggesting mitochondrial introgression. Nuclear genomes also show introgression, especially between C. cecrops and C. isobeon About 2.3% of each C. cecrops genome has probably (p-value < 0.01, FDR < 0.1) introgressed from C. isobeon and about 3.4% of each C. isobeon genome may have come from C. cecrops. The introgressed regions are enriched in genes encoding transmembrane proteins, mitochondria-targeting proteins and components of the larval cuticle. This study provides the first example of mitochondrial introgression in Lepidoptera supported by complete genome sequencing. Our results caution about relying solely on COI barcodes and mitochondrial DNA for species identification or discovery.

Новые данные по распространению голубянок из трибы Eumaeini (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae: Theclinae) в Иране

Новые данные по распространению голубянок из трибы Eumaeini (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae: Theclinae) в Иране

Allopatry and parapatry in hairstreak butterflies (Lycaenidae, Eumaeini) with uniform male sexual structures

Allopatry and parapatry in hairstreak butterflies (Lycaenidae, Eumaeini) with uniform male sexual structures

Coexistence of both gyroid chiralities in individual butterfly wing scales of Callophrys rubi

The wing scales of the Green Hairstreak butterfly Callophrys rubi consist of crystalline domains with sizes of a few micrometers, which exhibit a congenitally handed porous chitin microstructure identified as the chiral triply periodic single-gyroid structure. Here, the chirality and crystallographic texture of these domains are investigated by means of electron tomography. The tomograms unambiguously reveal the coexistence of the two enantiomeric forms of opposite handedness: the left- and right-handed gyroids. These two enantiomers appear with nonequal probabilities, implying that molecularly chiral constituents of the biological formation process presumably invoke a chiral symmetry break, resulting in a preferred enantiomeric form of the gyroid structure. Assuming validity of the formation model proposed by Ghiradella H (1989) J Morphol 202(1):69-88 and Saranathan V, et al. (2010) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107(26):11676-11681, where the two enantiomeric labyrinthine domains of the gyroid are connected to the extracellular and intra-SER spaces, our findings imply that the structural chirality of the single gyroid is, however, not caused by the molecular chirality of chitin. Furthermore, the wing scales are found to be highly textured, with a substantial fraction of domains exhibiting the <001> directions of the gyroid crystal aligned parallel to the scale surface normal. Both findings are needed to completely understand the photonic purpose of the single gyroid in gyroid-forming butterflies. More importantly, they show the level of control that morphogenesis exerts over secondary features of biological nanostructures, such as chirality or crystallographic texture, providing inspiration for biomimetic replication strategies for synthetic self-assembly mechanisms.

First Record ofAtlides gaumeri1and Notes onChalybs hassan1in Guatemala

Abstract. We report two species of hairstreak butterflies (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae: Theclinae) collected in Guatemala. Atlides gaumeri (Godman 1901) was recorded for the first time in the country, and Chalybs hassan (Stoll 1790) has been rediscovered for the first time since the late 1800s or early 1900s.

A Survey of the Pale Imperial Hairstreak ButterflyJalmenus eubulusin New South Wales

The Pale Imperial Hairstreak Butterfly Jalmenus eubulus is associated with Brigalow Acacia harpophylla communities in Queensland. The only previous record from New South Wales (NSW) was in a Travelling Stock Reserve south of Boggabilla in 1977. A two week survey was undertaken around this location in 2013 to determine whether the species still persisted in NSW and, if so, to document the extent of its distribution and its management requirements. The species was found at four of the 37 locations surveyed. These enclosed an area of 47.2 km2 (extent of occurrence) with 12.5 km2 of potential Brigalow habitat. The vegetation at capture sites ranged from old growth to dense saplings, but with Brigalow always dominating the canopy. There were many sites with Brigalow vegetation similar to the capture sites, both within and outside the extent of occurrence, where the species was not found. Further surveys are warranted within suitable Brigalow vegetation both within the extent of occurrence and surrounding areas...