Gypsy Moth Research Articles

Bounds on Absolute Gypsy Moth (Lymantria dispar dispar) (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) Population Density as Derived from Counts in Single Milk Carton Traps.

Estimates of absolute pest population density are critical to pest management programs but have been difficult to obtain from capture numbers in pheromone-baited monitoring traps. In this paper, we establish a novel predictive relationship for a probability (spTfer(r)) of catching a male located at a distance r from the trap with a plume reach D.

Growth Rates of Lymantria dispar Larvae and Quercus robur Seedlings at Elevated CO2 Concentration and Phytophthora plurivora Infection

Interactions between plants, insects and pathogens are complex and not sufficiently understood in the context of climate change. In this study, the impact of a root pathogen on a leaf-eating insect hosted by a tree species at elevated CO2 concentration is reported for the first time. The combined and isolated effects of CO2 and infection by the root pathogen Phytophthora plurivora on English oak (Quercus robur) seedlings were used to assess growth rates of plants and of gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) larvae. For this purpose, two Q. robur provenances (Belgrade and Sombor) were used. At ambient CO2 concentration, the relative growth rates of larvae consuming leaves of plants infected by P. plurivora was higher than those consuming non-infected plants. However, at elevated CO2 concentration (1000 ppm) higher relative growth rates were detected in the larvae consuming the leaves of non-infected plants. At ambient CO2 concentration, lower growth rates were recorded in L. dispar larvae hosted in Q. robur from Belgrade in comparison to larvae hosted in Q. robur from Sombor. However, at elevated CO2 concentration, similar growth rates irrespective of the provenance were observed. Defoliation by the gypsy moth did not influence the growth of plants while P. plurivora infection significantly reduced tree height in seedlings from Belgrade. The results confirm that a rise of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere modifies the existing interactions between P. plurivora, Q. robur, and L. dispar. Moreover, the influence of the tree provenances on both herbivore and plant performance at elevated CO2 concentrations suggests a potential for increasing forest resilience through breeding.

Oregon vs. the Gypsy Moth: Forty Years of Battling an Invasive Species

Oregon vs. the Gypsy Moth: Forty Years of Battling an Invasive Species

Ligand- and pH-Induced Structural Transition of Gypsy Moth Lymantria dispar Pheromone-Binding Protein 1 (LdisPBP1).

Pheromone-binding proteins (PBPs) are small, water-soluble proteins found in the lymph of pheromone-sensing hairs. PBPs are essential in modulating pheromone partitioning in the lymph and at pheromone receptors of olfactory sensory neurons. The function of a PBP is associated with its ability to structurally convert between two conformations. Although mechanistic details remain unclear, it has been proposed that the structural transition between these forms is affected by two factors: pH and the presence or absence of ligand. To better understand the PBP conformational transition, the structure of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) LdisPBP1 was elucidated at pH 4.5 and 35 °C using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In addition, the effects of sample pH and binding of the species' pheromone, (+)-disparlure, (7R,8S)-epoxy-2-methyloctadecane, and its enantiomer were monitored via 15N HSQC spectroscopy. LdisPBP1 in acidic conditions has seven helices, with its C-terminal residues forming the seventh helix within the pheromone-binding pocket and its N-terminal residues disordered. Under conditions where this conformation is made favorable, free LdisPBP1 would have limited ligand binding capacity due to the seventh helix occupying the internal binding pocket. Our findings suggest that even in the presence of 4-fold ligand at acidic pH, LdisPBP1 is only ∼60% in its pheromone-bound form. Furthermore, evidence of a different LdisPBP1 form is seen at higher pH, with the transition pH between 5.6 and 6.0. This suggests that LdisPBP1 at neutral pH exists as a mixture of at least two conformations. These findings have implications concerning the PBP ligand binding and release mechanism.

Further spread of the gypsy moth fungal pathogen, Entomophaga maimaiga, to the west and north in Central Europe

The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar, is one of the most important pests of deciduous trees in Europe, occurring in all environmental zones of Europe except the Alpine North and part of the Boreal zone. The gypsy moth fungal pathogen Entomophaga maimaiga, originally from Asia, was imported from the USA and released in Bulgaria, in 1999–2000. Spread of E. maimaiga in Central Europe was documented from 2011 to 2013, but this pathogen was only detected as far north as Slovakia. Collections of dead L. dispar larvae in 2019 (but not 2018), in areas of both sporadic and cyclic L. dispar outbreaks, resulted in the first detections of E. maimaiga in the Czech Republic. Lymantria dispar larvae were exposed to soil from oak forests in 2014–2018, but only infection by the gypsy moth nucleopolyhedrovirus (LdNPV) and the microsporidium Vairimorpha (= Nosema) lymantriae was detected. At most localities in the cyclic outbreak area, in 2017 the first defoliations of a new outbreak cycle occurred and the numbers of gypsy moth egg masses began to increase, so the calculated duration of approximately 13 years from outbreak to outbreak in the Czech Republic was verified.

A Stochastic Economic Framework for Partitioning Biosecurity Surveillance Resources

Effective biosecurity systems are important for protecting trade and the environment from the introduction of exotic pests and diseases, particularly as the movement of goods and people increases worldwide. But systems are complex and the optimal division of resources between biosecurity operations is difficult to determine. In this paper we formulate tractable, stochastic, bio-economic models to guide the optimisation of cost-efficiency in decisions concerning biosecurity operations. In particular, to guide a tradeoff between effort afforded to preventing the introduction of pests and diseases, and post-border surveillance, although the approach has general relevance. The models offer a practical means of optimising resource partitioning, designed to transfer easily between disparate settings and a range of pest-types, and to enable the incorporation of uncertainty. For highly complex problems, tractable frameworks are not always available or efficient. However, using an application to Asian gypsy moth trapping and reference to applications in the literature, we demonstrate that the proposed approach is relevant, is straightforward to apply, and provides a comprehensive analysis for decision-makers.

Effect of gamma irradiation and subsequent cold storage on the development and predatory potential of seven spotted ladybird beetle Coccinella septempunctata Linnaeus (Coleoptera; Coccinellidae) larvae

Seven spot ladybird beetle, (Coccinella septempunctata) is a widely distributed natural enemy of soft-bodied insect pests especially aphids worldwide. Both the adult and larvae of this coccinellid beetle are voracious feeders and serve as a commercially available biological control agent around the globe. Different techniques are adopted to enhance the mass rearing and storage of this natural enemy by taking advantage of its natural ability to withstand under extremely low temperatures and entering diapause under unfavorable low temperature conditions. The key objective of this study was to develop a cost effective technique for enhancing the storage life and predatory potential of the larvae of C. septempunctata through cold storage in conjunction with the use of nuclear techniques, gamma radiations. Results showed that the host eating potential of larvae was enhanced as the cold storage duration was increased. Gamma irradiation further enhanced the feeding potential of larvae that were kept under cold storage. Different irradiation doses also affected the development time of C. septempuntata larvae significantly. Without cold storage, the lower radiation doses (10 and 25 GY) prolonged the developmental time as compared to un-irradiated larvae. Furthermore, the higher dose of radiation (50GY) increased the developmental time after removal from cold storage. This study first time paves the way to use radiation in conjunction with cold storage as an effective technique in implementation of different biological control approaches as a part of any IPM programs

Accumulation of Cd and Pb in various body parts, organs and tissues of Lymantria dispar asiatica (Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Our results showed that under Cd and/or Pb stress, their accumulations in larval body parts/organs/tissues were significantly higher than those in the control, with the amounts of tested metals in the fat bodies and hemolymphs and alimentary canals being significantly higher than those in the heads and integuments. And the accumulations of heavy metals in the body parts/tissues will severely reduce their normal growth, development and metabolism of insects. • Cd/Pb were accumulated in various body parts of Lymantria dispar at different levels. • Cd/Pb accumulations were positively correlated with their concentrations in diets. • Cd and Pb showed synergism at low concentrations whereas antagonism at high. • Accumulation metals by larvae caused detrimental effects on growth and metabolism. To investigate the accumulation patterns of Cd and/or Pb in various body parts, organs and tissues of the Asian gypsy moth ( Lymantria dispar ) larvae under Cd and/or Pb stress, Cd and Pb treated artificial diets were used to feed the larvae in the current study. These larval body parts/organs/tissues included the heads, integuments (body walls), alimentary canals, fat bodies and hemolymphs. Our results showed that under Cd and/or Pb stress, their accumulations in larval body parts/organs/tissues were significantly higher than those in the control, with the amounts of tested metals in the fat bodies and hemolymphs and alimentary canals being significantly higher than those in the heads and integuments. Under the single Cd (0, 7.5, 10.5 mg/kg) or Pb stress (0, 55, 90, 125 mg/kg), the accumulations of these heavy metals were positively correlated with their concentrations in diets. Under the combined stress (Cd × Pb), the Cd accumulation at the lower Pb concentrations was higher than that at higher Pb concentrations for the body parts/organs/tissues, similar effects of Cd concentrations on Pb accumulations were also recorded. These results clearly showed that Cd and/or Pb were accumulated in various body parts/organs/tissues at different levels under the heavy metal stress. And accumulations of Pb/Cd were positively correlated with their concentrations in the diets under the single stress. Under the combined stresses, Cd and Pb had synergistic effects at low concentrations whereas antagonistic effects at high concentrations. The accumulations of Cd and/or Pb in the gypsy moth larvae affects normal physiological and biochemical functions, and thus affects their growth and development.

Spatial and temporal changes in male gypsy moth wing morphology reflect host tree phenology and habitat quality

AbstractThe size of adult gypsy moths, (Lymantria dispar L.), a capitalbreeder, is correlated with environmental conditions experienced as larvae. Proxies for adult size such as wing length may provide information about habitat quality and population density. We used male gypsy moths collected from pheromone traps at intervals through the flight season to assess phenological change in wing length. Consistent with a previous study conducted at our reference site, we found that wing length declines seasonally, likely resulting from phenological reduction in host foliage quality. This pattern was evident at our reference site over 8 years, and at our experimental sites with low‐density populations in 3 years. We assessed forest quality using two unique metrics, basal area of red oak (Quercus rubra), a high quality host tree, and a composite value generated from a published ranking of tree species quality for gypsy moth. We did not find a relationship between these metrics and wing length, although we found that the mean size of males was larger in stands with oak. Mean wing length in outbreak populations was significantly smaller reflecting density related processes such as intraspecific competition, although there was no significant seasonal effect on wing length.

Long-term monitoring and microbiological control programs against lepidopteran defoliators in Sardinian cork oak forests (Italy)

The gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.), and the tent caterpillar, Malacosoma neustrium (L.), are the main cork oak, Quercus suber L., pests in the Mediterranean area and cause complete defoliation in large forest districts. In order to control infestations, large scale aerial applications of insecticides based on Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki ( Btk ) have been carried out in Sardinia (Italy) since 2001. This paper evaluated the frequency of outbreaks in forest districts with varying homogeneity of land use, forest areas annually exposed to defoliation and the effectiveness of control programs based on Btk insecticide applications. The volume of areas annually exposed to defoliation depends on forest homogeneity, as infestations are more frequent in cork oak areas with a lower than 25% canopy cover rate. The microbiological control programme efficiently protected cork oaks from lepidopteran defoliators and caused an overall annual mean mortality of over 60%, with maximum rates of 89.9 and 98.0% for L. dispar and M. neustrium , respectively. To date, approximately 180,000 hectares of cork oak forests have been protected by spraying Btk -based insecticides.

A Comparison of the Vertical Transmission of High- and Low-Virulence Nucleopolyhedrovirus Strains in Lymantria Dispar L.

Baculoviruses can persist in insect host organisms after infection and may be vertically transmitted to the next generation, in which they may be reactivated. The goal of the present study was to compare the efficiency of the vertical transmission of high- and low-virulence strains and the subsequent reactivation of Lymantria dispar multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (LdMNPV) in the offspring of Lymantria dispar L. adults who survived after viral infection. As a result of parental infection, the fecundity of survived females, pupae weight, and fertility were significantly different compared to the untreated insects. However, differences in these parameters between high- and low-virulence strains were not observed. The prevalence of virus strains in the offspring measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction also did not differ. When the larvae reached the fourth instar, they were starved to activate the vertically transmitted virus. The frequency of virus activation in the experiment was not dependent on the virulence of the virus strains. These results are helpful for understanding the strategy of virus survival in nature and for the selection of the most effective strains with transgenerational effects in the years following pest treatment.

Temporospatial modulation of Lymantria dispar immune system against an entomopathogenic fungal infection.

Lymantria dispar is an economically impactful forest pest worldwide. The entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana shows great promise in pest management due to its high lethality in Lymantria dispar. A complete understanding of the immune interactions between the pest and the pathogenic fungus is essential to actualizing biological pest management. Following the infection of Lymantria dispar by Beauveria bassiana spores, we performed a time-course analysis of transcriptome in Lymantria dispar fat bodies and hemocytes to explore host immune response. A total of 244 immunity-related genes including pattern recognition receptors, extracellular signal modulators, immune pathways (Toll, IMD, JNK and JAK/STAT), and response effectors were identified. We observed contrasting tissue and time-specific differences in the expression of immune genes. At the early stage of infection, several recognition receptors and effector genes were activated, while the signal modulation and effector genes were suppressed at later stages. Further enzyme activity-based assays coupled with gene expression analysis of prophenoloxidase revealed a significant upregulation of phenoloxidase activity at 48- and 72-h post-infection. Moreover, fungal infection led to dysbiosis in gut microbiota that seems to be partially attributed to reduced gut hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) amount, which indicates a significant impact of fungal infection on host gut microbes. Our study provides a comprehensive sequence resource and crucial new insights about an economically important forest pest. Specifically, we elucidate the complicated multipartite interaction between host and fungal pathogen and contribute to a better understanding of Lymantria dispar anti-fungal immunity, resulting in better tools for biological pest control. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Cd exposure-induced growth retardation involves in energy metabolism disorder of midgut tissues in the gypsy moth larvae

Cadmium, a common environmental contaminant in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, presented a serious hazard to growth and development of phytophagous insects. For better understanding the toxicology of Cd exposure on phytophagous insects, the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying the energy metabolism disorder in midgut tissue of gypsy moth larvae fed on Cd-amended artificial diets (3.248 or 44.473 mg Cd/kg fresh food) were investigated. Our results showed that compared with control, Cd exposure at both two levels triggered detriment effects on growth indexes, and with the increase of exposure concentrations, the adverse effects were significantly exacerbated. Larval growth and nutritional indexes (except approximate digestibility) showed a strong positive correlation, indicating that growth retardation in the gypsy moth larvae under Cd stress was tightly related to the food utilization. The key genes at mRNA level in glycolysis/gluconeogenesis, citrate cycle pathway and starch/sucrose metabolism pathway also presented a significant and positive correlation with growth indexes, once again demonstrating that energy metabolism was the key factor that controls the growth and development of the gypsy moth larvae under Cd stress. Antioxidant system collapse and oxidative damage, a chief cause of histopathological alterations in midgut tissue, consist of the physiological basis of energy metabolism disorder in Cd-treated gypsy moth larvae. Together, these results suggest that histopathological alterations or oxidative damage of tissue structure significant disturbed physiological functions of midgut tissue in gypsy moth larvae exposed to Cd stress, as reflected via food utilization or energy metabolism disorder, and eventually resulted in larval growth retardation.

Поиск оптимальных способов хранения яиц непарного шелкопряда Lymantria dispar (Linnaeus, 1758) для разведения на них яйцееда Оoencyrtus kuvanae (Howard, 1910)

В статье приводятся результаты поиска оптимальных способов хранения яиц непарного шелкопряда Lymantria dispar для разведения на них яйцееда Ooencyrtus kuvanae. Определены основные факторы, снижающие качество биоматериала яйцекладок. Установлены показатели выхода яйцеедов при разных способах хранения и обработки яиц из яйцекладок. The article is devoted to a detailed consideration of a number of questions about the storage of biological material, egg-laying’s gypsy moth – Lymantria dispar (Linnaeus, 1758), eggs from which, are subsequently, used for breeding parasitic wasp – Ooencyrtus kuvanae (Howard, 1910), and search among them optimal. The jurisdiction is a review of the knowledge of this problem in Russia and abroad [1]. In the main part of the article presents data conducted in 2018–2019 years, the first author, 15 series of experiments. The materials consider in detail the influence of abiotic and biotic factors on the quality of the eggs of the gypsy moth, needed later, for breeding parasitic wasp – Ooencyrtu skuvanae (How.). The work examines the quality of eggs collected the Tyumen region at different times: summer, autumn and spring, before the onset of incubation. The effect of cooling eggs to + 2...0 °С is studied, and freezing to -15...-17 °С. Also examines the impact of the duration of egg storage, freshly laid eggs are compared with stored up to 5 months and from 5 to 10 months. Studied the use of unfertilized eggs gypsy moth for growing parasitic wasp – Ooencyrtus kuvanae (How.). Additionally, an experiment was conducted to assess the effectiveness of the application of eggs processing with hot water up to + 60°С for 1 hour, to prevent exit of larvae in the process of infection parasitic wasp, especially long-term storage eggs or egg-laying’s collected in the spring with the already started incubation process. The material in the work is supported by graphic material: a tables and graphs. In conclusion, the authors of the work, on the basis of the data obtained, assess the significance of factors that have a negative impact on the quality of eggs, as well as offers recommendations on the best ways to store biomaterials, including the use of unfertilized eggs and the appropriateness of using heat treatment with hot water. At the end it is given a list of used literature, consisting of 11 sources. Referenсe 1. Methodological guidelines on the use of introduced parasitic wasp Ooencyrtus kuvanae against gypsy moth]. – Access mode : http://www.agrozoo.ru/base_gvc/karantin/document/17.html/ (date of application 25.07. 2019).

Spread externalities and the implications of heterogeneous ecological capacity constraints

We develop a spatial-dynamic model of resource management in the presence of externalities, such as the spread of harmful invasive species, and show that ecological capacity constraints influence optimal management strategies across space. We use integer-programming methods to solve for optimal control strategies in both homogeneous and heterogeneous landscapes. Using the spread of gypsy moths as an application, our results show that optimal levels of control vary over space in landscapes with heterogeneous capacity constraints. Optimal outcomes depend on the marginal costs and damages associated with the externality and the emergence of spread externalities from relative differences in population levels between adjacent patches. In models with high degrees of heterogeneity, we show that a naïve policy assuming homogeneous carrying capacity results in a significantly higher welfare losses from the externality.

The potency of the butterfly: The reception of Richard B. Goldschmidt's animal experiments in German sexology around 1920.

This article considers the sexual politics of animal evidence in the context of German sexology around 1920. In the 1910s, the German-Jewish geneticist Richard B. Goldschmidt conducted experiments on the moth Lymantria dispar, and discovered individuals that were no longer clearly identifiable as male or female. When he published an article tentatively arguing that his research on ‘intersex butterflies’ could be used to inform concurrent debates about human homosexuality, he triggered a flurry of responses from Berlin-based sexologists. In this article, I examine how a number of well-known sexologists affiliated with Magnus Hirschfeld, his Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, and later his Institute of Sexology attempted to incorporate Goldschmidt’s experiments into their sexological work between 1917 and 1923. Intersex butterflies were used to discuss issues at the heart of German sexology: the legal debate about the criminalisation of homosexuality under paragraph 175; the scientific methodology of sexology, caught between psychiatric, biological, and sociological approaches to the study of sexual and gender diversity; and the status of sexology as natural science, able to contribute knowledge about the sexual Konstitution of the organism. This article thus shows that butterfly experiments function as important and politically charged evidence for a discussion at the heart of the sexological project of those involved in the founding of the Institute of Sexology: the question of the nature and naturalness of homosexuality (and sexual intermediacy more broadly) and its political consequences. In doing so, this article makes a case for paying attention to non-human actors in the history of sexology.

Effectiveness of Modified Traps for Protection Against Fruit Flies on Mango

Mango is one of the primary fruit export commodities in Indonesia. The productivity of mango can be increased by controlling the pest population, including fruit flies Bactrocera spp. Various efforts to control the population of fruit flies have been carried out, either by implementing traditional methods or by using synthetic pesticides. However, synthetic pesticides can cause pollution, and therefore we need to control the fruit flies’ population by using the most effective fruit fly trap mode. The study was conducted in the mango yield (monoculture) of Department of Agriculture in Majalengka. The traps in this study were modified Steiner traps with funnels, modified Steiner traps without funnels, bottle traps with funnels, bottle traps without funnels, and modified gypsy moth traps. Each trap was fed with 0.2 ml of Methyl eugenol dripped on a cotton roll and hung in the trap. The results showed that the number of fruit flies caught in each trap every week is significantly different. The highest number of fruit flies caught in each trap every week was achieved by bottle traps without funnels that caught 135 flies, while the lowest number of fruit flies caught was recorded by the gypsy moth traps with 16 flies. The transparent color of the bottles and a large number of holes effectively lured the fruit flies into the bottle traps without funnels.

Effect of Cadmium Dietary Intake on Midgut β-Glucosidase of Lymantria dispar Larvae

A crucial enzyme in feeding and survival of Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth) caterpillars is β-glucosidase. Considering that this herbivorous species is one of the most damaging pests, a study of the enzyme that hydrolyzes plant polysaccharides is of invaluable significance. The knowledge of glucosidase alterations helps clarify our understanding of the insect pest feeding strategy in highly polluted environments. We sought to find out whether acute and chronic exposures to cadmium (10 and 30 mg Cd/g dry food), as well as the recovery from long-term treatment, influence the specific activity of midgut β-glucosidase. Cadmium ingestion did not alter enzyme activity compared to control, regardless of the treatment duration and metal concentration. The only statistically significant increase in enzyme activity was detected during the recovery after chronic treatment at 10 mg Cd/g dry food compared to the chronic cadmium effect at the same metal concentration. During chronic treatment at a lower cadmium concentration (10 mg Cd/g dry food), the phenotypic plasticity index was higher than at the recovery from the same concentration, while the variability of plasticity among these treatments was higher after recovery. Only one enzyme isoform was detected, which indicates its ability to hydrolyze several substrates. We concluded that this enzyme is probably essential for larval nutrition and survival in the presence of high amounts of cadmium in the food.

Screening and evaluation of the stability of expression of reference genes in Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) using qRT-PCR.

The quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) has rapidly become the most sensitive and accurate method for the quantitative analysis of gene expression. Normalization of gene expression to that of relatively stably expressed housekeeping genes is required to facilitate the study of gene expression and to obtain more accurate RT-PCR data. However, no studies of the stability of expression of housekeeping genes in Lymantria dispar have been reported. In the present study, BestKeeper, GeNorm and NormFinder statistical software was used to evaluate the expression of thirteen candidate reference genes in L. dispar under different conditions. The expression levels of candidate reference genes were determined for two biological factors (developmental stages and tissues) and four abiotic treatments (temperature, insecticide, CO2 and starvation). The results showed that the best candidate reference genes in L. dispar were TUB, AK, RPS15 for developmental stages, RPL32 and GAPDH for tissues, ACTB and EF1-α for CO2 stress, GAPDH and RPL32 for temperature stress, RPS3 and GAPDH for insecticide stress, and GAPDH and RPS3 for starvation stress. In summary, EF1-α and TUB are preferential housekeeping genes in L. dispar under various conditions. These results provide a basis for the further study of functional genes of L. dispar.

Comparison of Survival and Development of Gypsy Moth Lymantria dispar L. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) Populations from Different Geographic Areas on North American Conifers.

Host utilization information is critical to managers for estimating the hosts at risk and potential geographic range for gypsy moths from different geographic origins. In this study, the development and survival of gypsy moths from all three subspecies on 13 North American conifers and three broadleaf hosts were compared. There was variation in the ability of gypsy moth larvae from different geographic origins to utilize (survive and develop on) key North American conifers. However, that variation was not consistent within gypsy moth subspecies, but instead was more consistent with populations from different origins being preadapted to utilize different hosts and having different biologic traits. Some Asian populations developed and survived well on some conifers while populations from Europe and North America gained weight faster and/or survived better than some Asian populations. Although development was slower and survival poorer on several of the conifers, first instar larvae were able to utilize conifers unless the needles were tough or feeding deterrents were present. Host phenology was also critical since the early instars fed preferentially on new foliage or buds. Gypsy moth larvae can utilize many hosts, so this makes it a very adaptable invasive species that warrants taking measures to prevent its spread.