Groups In South America Research Articles

Diversity, Affinities and Adaptations of the Basal Sparassodont Patene (Mammalia, Metatheria)

Sparassodonts were the main mammalian predators during most of the Cenozoic in South America. The lower Eocene Itaboraí Basin/ Formation includes the second oldest fossil records of this group in South America: Patene Simpson and cf. Nemolestes Ameghino. Patene is by far the most abundant sparassodont from this formation, with more than 30 specimens referable to a single taxon, Patene simpsoni Paula Couto. Some specimens recovered from the Quebrada de Los Colorados Formation (formerly Lumbrera Formation – middle Eocene) in Northwestern Argentina have been also referred to P. simpsoni. In order to test the affinities of Patene and the taxonomy of the Argentinean specimens, we performed a review of the genus. Specimens of Patene from Northwestern Argentina show significant differences from the specimen from Brazil, including: smaller size; a relatively larger paraconid; and smaller metaconid, entoconid and hypoconid. As a result, the specimens from the Quebrada de Los Colorados Formation are assigned to a new taxon, Patene coloradensis sp. nov. The results of our phylogenetic analysis recover Patene as a basal sparassodont and support previous hypotheses that exclude Patene from the “Hathliacynidae”. The results also supported the hypothesis that Allqokirus australis Marshall & Muizon and Mayulestes ferox Muizon from the Tiupampa Basin (Santa Lucía Formation, lower Paleocene – Tiupampan SALMA), Bolivia, are the oldest known representatives of the Sparassodonta. The results also supported the monophyly of the Pucadelphyda with the inclusion of the Jaskhadelphyidae and closely related taxa in this group in addition to the Pucadelphyidae and Sparassodonta. The late Cretaceous North American Varalphadon Johanson was not recovered as a representative of the Sparassodonta in our phylogenetic analysis. Based on our results and the current fossil record, the Sparassodonta should be considered an endemic South American lineage.

40,000-Year-Old Individual from Asia Provides Insight into Early Population Structure in Eurasia

By at least 45,000 years before present, anatomically modern humans had spread across Eurasia [1-3], but it is not well known how diverse these early populations were and whether they contributed substantially to later people or represent early modern human expansions into Eurasia that left no surviving descendants today. Analyses of genome-wide data from several ancient individuals from Western Eurasia and Siberia have shown that some of these individuals have relationships to present-day Europeans [4, 5] while others did not contribute to present-day Eurasian populations [3, 6]. As contributions from Upper Paleolithic populations in Eastern Eurasia to present-day humans and their relationship to other early Eurasians is not clear, we generated genome-wide data from a 40,000-year-old individual from Tianyuan Cave, China, [1, 7] to study his relationship to ancient and present-day humans. We find that he is more related to present-day and ancient Asians than he is to Europeans, but he shares more alleles with a 35,000-year-old European individual than he shares with other ancient Europeans, indicating that the separation between early Europeans and early Asians was not a single population split. We also find that the Tianyuan individual shares more alleles with some Native American groups in South America than with Native Americans elsewhere, providing further support for population substructure in Asia [8] and suggesting that this persisted from 40,000 years ago until the colonization of the Americas. Our study of the Tianyuan individual highlights the complex migration and subdivision of early human populations in Eurasia.

Abstract 3263: Is Latin America ready for the use of genomics in cancer care and control

Abstract In Latin American (LA) countries cancer is the second most frequent cause of death after cardiovascular disease. Disease patterns have changed from infectious to chronic, the population is increasing and becoming elderly, and countries lack planning to respond adequately to this epidemiological and socio-demographic transition. By 2025 and increment of nearly 30% of new cases and 35% of deaths from cancer are predicted. Genomic studies have profoundly changed cancer management from improved cancer diagnosis to reformulating cancer prognosis and treatment. However, all these key advances have been mainly concentrated in highly developed nations and little is known about the capacities and needs of cancer genomics in the LA context. In order to evaluate the capacity and development of cancer genomics in LA, we collected available information for all countries in Central, South America and Cuba. Data reviewed included: number of NGS platforms, number of cancer research institutions, research groups working in cancer genetics, publications on cancer genetics and genomics in the last 10 years, educational programs on genomics and related national cancer control policies. Currently, there are a total of 212 NGS platforms in LA. Mexico and Brazil are the countries with more users, and Peru and Ecuador have the fewest. 118 research groups in South America have been working in cancer genetics and started developing cancer genomics related projects. No data on research groups was available for countries in Central America. In the last 10 years, 231 articles in cancer genetic/genomic related topics were published by authors affiliated to LA institutions. Educational programs in genomics are scarce, almost exclusive of graduate programs and few applied to cancer. Twelve countries in LA have national cancer control plans (NCCP). All NCCPs reviewed consider secondary prevention strategies for early diagnosis, opportune treatment and decrease of mortality, areas where genomic analysis could be implemented. Only 5 NCCPs include cancer research as an action plan to increase cancer prevention strategies and reduce both incidence and mortality. Despite the recent advances in introducing cancer genomics knowledge and application in LA, the region lacks development of integrated genomic research projects, improved use of platforms, associated educational programs and health policies that might focus on the most frequent cancers and could impact cancer care. Citation Format: Sandra Perdomo, Angela Torres, Javier Olivier, Cecilia Frecha, Rosalía Quezada-Urban, Clara Estela Díaz-Velasquez, Felipe Vaca. Is Latin America ready for the use of genomics in cancer care and control [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2017; 2017 Apr 1-5; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2017;77(13 Suppl):Abstract nr 3263. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2017-3263

Ayahuasca: Friend or Foe?

Back to table of contents Previous article Next article CommentaryNo AccessAyahuasca: Friend or Foe?Gerard I. Fernando, M.D.Gerard I. FernandoSearch for more papers by this author, M.D.Published Online:26 Apr 2017https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp-rj.2016.110605AboutSectionsPDF/EPUB ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InEmail Ayahuasca is an entheogenic brew that is used as a medicinal sacrament and for ritualistic purposes among religious groups in South America. In the last decade, people from all walks of life, usually in their 20s and 30s, from North America and Europe have started to seek access to the substance. Many have traveled to South America, notably Brazil and Peru, to participate in the ayahuasca ritual.Once consumed, it induces hallucinations and spiritual experiences that are thought to be due to increased introspection. Effects begin about 30 minutes after consumption and can last up to 8 hours. Ayahuasca can contain the Banisteriopsis caapi vine alone, which contains monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A)-inhibiting beta-carbolines, but is often combined with Chacruna (Psychotria viridis) or Chagropanga leaves, which have high concentrations of the psychedelic compound N, N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) (1). Alone, DMT is made inactive by intestinal MAO-A metabolism; therefore, it is combined with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor to allow absorption of the active substance. Once it crosses the blood-brain barrier, DMT acts as a 5-HT1A/2A/2C agonist and a mGluR2 agonist. There is increased blood flow to the frontal and paralimbic brain areas after ingestion, specifically bilateral activation of the anterior insula/inferior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate/medial frontal gyrus in the right hemisphere, and amygdala/parahippocampal gyrus in the left hemisphere (2). These areas have previously been implicated in somatic awareness and emotional arousal. Compared with the better studied psychedelic lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), the experience with ayahuasca is described as more intense, with people sometimes losing touch with their physical surroundings. Ayahuasca also causes vomiting (unlike LSD), which is considered to be an important part of the ritual.An explanation for the increase in popularity may be due to a recent spike in media coverage of ayahuasca. Celebrities—from the singer Sting to the actress Lindsay Lohan—along with major media outlets, such as the New York Times and Huffington Post, are singing the praises of ayahuasca, which may be contributing to the increase in its use and perceived safety. Furthermore, ayahuasca may show promise in the treatment of several psychiatric disorders. Studies have shown its effectiveness in treating depression (3) and addiction (4) in humans, although these were observational and limited in significance. In a CNN documentary hosted by journalist Lisa Ling, increasing use of the psychedelic in veteran populations was exposed. Ling followed veterans to South America, where they ingested ayahuasca in hopes of treating their PTSD symptoms. While popular culture has supported its expanding use, it can lead to significant medical complications, such as serotonin syndrome and death. An increasing number of deaths after intoxication have been reported and suspected to be the result of serotonin syndrome, as many of the affected individuals were medicated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors prior to taking ayahuasca (5).Due to an explosion of media coverage, our patients may become interested in ingesting ayahuasca in hopes of treating their psychiatric conditions. Warning them of the possible dangers, particularly serotonin syndrome, could potentially save their lives.Dr. Fernando is a fourth-year resident at Harvard South Shore, VA Boston Healthcare System, Psychiatry, Brockton, Mass.The author thanks Shalini Rao, Dilantha and Pushpini Fernando for their help in reviewing this commentary. The author also thanks Andrew Szanton for advising on this commentary.

Early South Americans Cranial Morphological Variation and the Origin of American Biological Diversity.

Recent South Americans have been described as presenting high regional cranial morphological diversity when compared to other regions of the world. This high diversity is in accordance with linguistic and some of the molecular data currently available for the continent, but the origin of this diversity has not been satisfactorily explained yet. Here we explore if this high morphological variation was already present among early groups in South America, in order to refine our knowledge about the timing and origins of the modern morphological diversity. Between-group (Fst estimates) and within-group variances (trace of within-group covariance matrix) of the only two early American population samples available to date (Lagoa Santa and Sabana de Bogotá) were estimated based on linear craniometric measurements and compared to modern human cranial series representing six regions of the world, including the Americas. The results show that early Americans present moderate within-group diversity, falling well within the range of modern human groups, despite representing almost three thousand years of human occupation. The between-group variance apportionment is very low between early Americans, but is high among recent South American groups, who show values similar to the ones observed on a global scale. Although limited to only two early South American series, these results suggest that the high morphological diversity of native South Americans was not present among the first human groups arriving in the continent and must have originated during the Middle Holocene, possibly due to the arrival of new morphological diversity coming from Asia during the Holocene.

The earliest record (early Miocene) of a bony-toothed bird from South America and a reexamination of Venezuelan pelagornithids

ABSTRACTPelagornithids or bony-toothed birds were an enigmatic group of very large marine birds that existed throughout most of the Tertiary, with remains recovered in all continents. The currently recognized record of pelagornithids in South America extends from the middle Miocene to the Pliocene. Here, a fragment of a ramus mandibulae recently discovered in the Cerro La Cruz site (Castillo Formation, Lara State, northwestern Venezuela), is assigned to Pelagornis. With an early Miocene age (18.27–18.85 Ma), the fossil constitutes the earliest unequivocal record of the group in South America. The reexamination of another pelagornithid specimen recovered from Capadare Formation (middle Miocene), which was previously assigned to Pelagornithidae indeterminate, allows us to recognize the presence during the Miocene of Venezuela of a second pelagornithid morphotype, here tentatively referred to Pelagornis chilensis Mayr and Rubilar-Rogers, 2010. Originally recorded from the middle Miocene-early Pliocene of Chile, the possible presence of P. cf. P. chilensis during the middle Miocene of Venezuela might represent the first record of this bony-toothed species outside Chile and expands its distribution area by 3500 km, to the tropical waters of northern South America. Citation for this article: Solorzano, A., and A. D. Rincon. 2015. The earliest record (early Miocene) of a bony-toothed bird from South America and a reexamination of Venezuelan pelagornithids. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. DOI: 10.1080/02724634.2014.995188.

Intolerance South of America: comparative study of fascist groups from Brazil and Argentina on the Internet (1996-2007)

This article investigates the uses of the Internet made by fascist groups from Brazil and Argentina. We use as main sources professedly fascist websites created shortly after the popularization of the Internet. From the perspective offered by the comparative methodology advocated by Marc Bloch, the text examines the relation between Brazilian homepages and the best known South American far-right website, Ciudad Libertad Opinión, created in 1999 with the primary purpose of spreading fascist ideas and providing support to other extremist groups. We point out the strategic role played by the web portal Libre Opinión as articulator between fascist groups in South America, this is a key contributor in the diffusion of Brazilian web pages marked to convey on a regular basis xenophobic, racist, anti-Semitic, and homophobic messages.Keywords: Fascism – Brazil; Fascism – Argentina; Internet; South America

Record of tayassuids in ?late Pliocene to Quaternary deposits in Venezuela

Tayassuidae is represented by three extant species whose distribution ranges from southwestern United States to north-central Argentina. As one of the North American immigrants that entered South America during the Great American Biotic Interchange, the oldest unquestionable record of the family dates to the middle Pliocene in Argentina. Intensive paleontological fi eldwork carried out in Venezuela resulted in many new localities containing vertebrate fossils remains. Among these sites, the fossil-rich tar pits and caves are particularly signifi cant. Dental remains of Tayassu pecari discovered in these sites are smaller than those described from other regions. The presence of Tayassu pecari in the ?late Pliocene Venezuelan locality represents the putative oldest record of this species in South America. A few specimens were identifi ed as Pecari tajacu. The Venezuelan tayassuid fossils document the presence of these two distinct North American immigrant lineages in northern South America, and provide information that improves our understanding of the distribution and diversity of the group in South America during the late Pliocene-early Holocene, following their entry into South American during the Great American Biotic Interchange.

Global evolution of Equidae and Gomphotheriidae from South America.

The contemporary South American mammalian communities were determined by the emergence of the Isthmus of Panama and by the profound climatic oscillations during the Pleistocene. Horses and gomphotheres were 2 very conspicuous groups of immigrant mammals from North America that arrived in South America during the Pleistocene. The present study compiles updated data on the phylogeny, systematics and ecology of both groups in South America. The horses in South America are represented by 2 genera, Hippidion and Equus, as are the gomphotheres, represented by Cuvieronius and Stegomastodon. Both genera of horses include small (Hippidion devillei, H. saldiasi, E. andium and E. insulatus) and large forms (Equus neogeus and H. principale), which dispersed into South America using 2 different routes. The possible model for this dispersion indicates that the small forms used the Andes corridor, while larger horses dispersed through the eastern route and through some coastal areas. In the case of gomphotheres, Cuvieronius and Stegomastodon reached South America in 2 independent dispersal events, and Cuvieronius dispersed across the Andean corridor, while large Stegomastodon spread along the eastern route. Horses and gomphotheres present values of δ(13) C from woodlands to C4 grasslands. Hippidion present lower values of δ(13) C than Equus in the late Pleistocene, whereas the gomphotheres diverge from value of δ(18) O, reflecting that Cuvieronius inhabited the Andean corridor and Stegomastodon dispersed through eastern plains. The gomphothere and horse species recorded in South America became extinct around the time that humans arrived.

New Late Miocene Dromomerycine Artiodactyl from the Amazon Basin: Implications for Interchange Dynamics

A new dromomerycine palaeomerycid artiodactyl,Surameryx acrensisnew genus new species, from upper Miocene deposits of the Amazon Basin documents the first and only known occurrence of this Northern Hemisphere group in South America. Osteological characters place the new taxon among the earliest known dromomerycine artiodactyls, most similar toBarbouromeryx trigonocorneus, which lived in North America during the early to middle Miocene, 20–16 Ma. Although it has long been assumed that the Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI) began with the closure of the Isthmus of Panama in the late Pliocene, or ca. 3.0–2.5 Ma, the presence of this North American immigrant in Amazonia is further evidence that terrestrial connections between North America and South America through Panama existed as early as the early late Miocene, or ca. 9.5 Ma. This early interchange date was previously indicated by approximately coeval specimens of proboscideans, peccaries, and tapirs in South America and ground sloths in North America. Although palaeomerycids apparently never flourished in South America, proboscideans thrived there until the end of the Pleistocene, and peccaries and tapirs diversified and still live there today.

Two new species of Lachesilla in the andra group, from the Chapada Diamantina, Bahia, Brazil (Psocodea: 'Psocoptera': Lachesillidae).

Two new species of Lachesilla in the andra group are described from Brazil, where the group was previously unknown. They raise to five the number of species in the group known in South America. An identification key for females of the andra group in South America is included.

A Bayesian Approach to Genome/Linguistic Relationships in Native South Americans

The relationship between the evolution of genes and languages has been studied for over three decades. These studies rely on the assumption that languages, as many other cultural traits, evolve in a gene-like manner, accumulating heritable diversity through time and being subjected to evolutionary mechanisms of change. In the present work we used genetic data to evaluate South American linguistic classifications. We compared discordant models of language classifications to the current Native American genome-wide variation using realistic demographic models analyzed under an Approximate Bayesian Computation (ABC) framework. Data on 381 STRs spread along the autosomes were gathered from the literature for populations representing the five main South Amerindian linguistic groups: Andean, Arawakan, Chibchan-Paezan, Macro-Jê, and Tupí. The results indicated a higher posterior probability for the classification proposed by J.H. Greenberg in 1987, although L. Campbell's 1997 classification cannot be ruled out. Based on Greenberg's classification, it was possible to date the time of Tupí-Arawakan divergence (2.8 kya), and the time of emergence of the structure between present day major language groups in South America (3.1 kya).

A new cycad stem from the Cretaceous in Argentina and its phylogenetic relationships with other Cycadales

The cycads are an ancient group of seed plants. Fossil stems assigned to the Cycadales are, however, rare and few descriptions of them exist. Here, a new genus of cycad stem, Wintucycas gen. nov., is described on the basis of specimens found in the Allen Formation (Upper Cretaceous) at the Salitral Ojo de Agua locality, Rio Negro Province, Argentina. The most remarkable features of Wintucyas are: a columnar stem with persistent leaf bases, absence of cataphylls, a wide pith, medullary vascular bundles, mucilage canals and idioblasts; a polyxylic vascular cylinder; inverted xylem; and manoxylic wood. The new genus was included in a phylogenetic analysis and its relationships with fossil and extant genera of Cycadales were examined. In the resulting phylogenetic hypothesis, Wintucycas is circumscribed to subfamily Encephalartoideae, supporting the existence of a greater diversity of this group in South America during the Cretaceous. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 170, 436–458.

A basal sphenodontian (Lepidosauria) from the Jurassic of Patagonia: new insights on the phylogeny and biogeography of Gondwanan rhynchocephalians

Herein we describe a new rhynchocephalian taxon from the Middle Jurassic of Patagonia, Argentina, representing the first Jurassic record of the group in South America. The new taxon, consisting of a complete dentary, is ascribed to Sphenodontia based on the presence of a deep and wide Meckelian groove, long posterior process, well-developed coronoid process, and acrodont teeth showing dental regionalization including successional, alternate hatchling, and additional series. This allocation is reinforced by a phylogenetic analysis that places the new taxon in a basal position within a clade of sphenodontians that excludes Diphydontosaurus and Planocephalosaurus. Additionally, the new taxon clusters within a Gondwanan clade with the Indian Godavarisaurus from the Jurassic Kota Formation, sharing the presence of recurved and relatively large posterior successional teeth that are ribbed and bear a peculiar anterolingual groove. This sister-group relationship is intriguing from a palaeobiogeographical viewpoint, as it suggests some degree of endemism during the initial stages of the breakup of Pangaea. We also discuss the ontogenetic stage of the new taxon and provide insights on the evolution of successional dentition in rhynchocephalians. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 166, 342–360.

A fossil Dendrocygninae (Aves, Anatidae) from the Early Pliocene of the Argentine Pampas and its paleobiogeographical implications

In the present paper, the distal end of a humerus referable to a Dendrocygninae anseriform bird is reported. The specimen was collected at the Monte Hermoso Formation (early Pliocene) of the Farola Monte Hermoso locality (Buenos Aires Province, Argentina). This record constitutes one of the oldest for the group in South America and elsewhere. The overview of the anseriform record in South America indicates a similar pattern to that of other localities across the world. Paleogene localities are dominated by non-Anatinae taxa, whereas more recent faunas are dominated by anatines. Following this pattern, in South America the Anatinae appears in the fossil record as recently as in the Pleistocene, probably arriving from North America during the Great American Biotic Interchange. Pleistocene and Recent anseriform avifaunas are dominated by Anatinae taxa, and this dominance is probably due to some “key characters” regarding reproductive biology. In fact, the anatines exhibit a high reproductive success probably due to the capability of having two molts per year, and that the parental care of the downy young is only conducted by the female. The combination of characters may have allowed anatines to dominate most aquatic environments, surpassing in diversity more plesiomorphic taxa.

Vertebrate time-tree elucidates the biogeographic pattern of a major biotic change around the K-T boundary in Madagascar.

The geographic and temporal origins of Madagascar's biota have long been in the center of debate. We reconstructed a time-tree including nearly all native nonflying and nonmarine vertebrate clades present on the island, from DNA sequences of two single-copy protein-coding nuclear genes (BDNF and RAG1) and a set of congruent time constraints. Reconstructions calculated with autocorrelated or independent substitution rates over clades agreed in placing the origins of the 31 included clades in Cretaceous to Cenozoic times. The two clades with sister groups in South America were the oldest, followed by those of a putative Asian ancestry that were significantly older than the prevalent clades of African ancestry. No colonizations from Asia occurred after the Eocene, suggesting that dispersal and vicariance of Asian/Indian groups were favored over a comparatively short period during, and shortly after, the separation of India and Madagascar. Species richness of clades correlates with their age but those clades that have a large proportion of species diversity in rainforests are significantly more species-rich. This finding suggests an underlying pattern of continuous speciation through time in Madagascar's vertebrates, with accelerated episodes of adaptive diversification in those clades that succeeded radiating into the rainforests.

Family selection study among DNA samples collected from Amerindian ethnic group (Wayuu) in northern Colombia

In the Sonoda-Tajima Cell Collection, one of the cell bank of RIKEN BioResource Center, DNA samples from an Amerindian ethnic minority group (Wayuu) in Colombia analysed for 21 autosomal STRs, 17 Y-STRs and HV-I and -II regions in mtDNA to select the kinships among those samples in order to study on how the kinships influence population genetic analysis. As a result, totally 17 kinships including 4 mother–child, 6 one-parent-two-child, 3 sibling relationships, and 4 kinds of complicated kinships were selected. All the paternal linages were confirmed by the Y-STR haplotypes. The sequence data of almost the maternal linages were concordant with each relationship. When compared between the 98-samples population and the 78-samples population in which the first degree of parentage relationships were removed, no significant difference was observed at allele frequency distributions, and the topology in a NJ-tree with the data from the other 20 ethnic groups in South America was not different. It suggested that about one-fifth of parentage relationship in such population size does not influence population genetic analysis.

Entomophagy and human food security

Food security is a problem in many developing and less developed countries due to increase in human population and decrease in crop productivity and food availability. Edible insects are a natural renewable resource of food providing carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. As such, entomophagy is common in ethnic groups in South America, Mexico, Africa and Asia, where indigenous insects are easily available and are consumed in various forms (raw/processed) or used as an ingredient or supplement in modern recipes. Entomophagy therefore offers an opportunity to bridge the protein gap of human foods irrespective of a few constraints that are discussed. Concerning food security, more attention is needed to assess and revalidate entomophagy in the context of modern life. Further research would be necessary to exploit insect biodiversity and ethno-entomophagy, stop overexploitation of these insects, and initiate actions for insect conservation.

Genetic diversity and spatial structure in a new distinct Theobroma cacao L. population in Bolivia

Cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) is an important economic crop in the Bolivian Amazon. Bolivian farmers both cultivate cacao, and extract fruits from wild stands in the Beni River region and in valleys of the Andes foothills. The germplasm group traditionally used is presently referred to as “Cacao Nacional Boliviano” (CNB). Using DNA fingerprinting technology based on microsatellite markers, we genotyped 164 Bolivian cacao accessions, including both cultivated and wild CNB accessions sampled from the Amazonian regions of La Paz and Beni, and compared their SSR profiles with 78 reference Forastero accessions from Amazonian cacao populations, including germplasm from the Ucayali region of Peru. Results of multivariate ordination and analysis of molecular variance show that CNB cacao has a unique genetic profile that is significantly different from the known cacao germplasm groups in South America. The results also show that cultivated CNB and wild CNB populations in the Beni River share a similar genetic profile, suggesting that the cultivated CNB is of indigenous origin in Bolivia. The level of genetic diversity, measured by allele richness and gene diversity in the Bolivian cacao, is moderately high, but was significantly lower than gene diversity in the other Amazonian cacao populations. Significant spatial genetic structure was detected in the wild CNB population, using analysis of autocorrelation (rc = 0.232; P < 0.001) and Mantel tests (Rxy = 0.276; P < 0.001). This finding is also highly valuable to support in situ conservation and sustainable use of CNB genetic diversity in Bolivia.

Hierarchical Y-SNP assay to study the hidden diversity and phylogenetic relationship of native populations in South America

Studying the Y chromosomes of indigenous tribes of Ecuador revealed a lack of strategic SNP assays to examine the substructure of South American native populations. In most studies dealing with South American samples so far only the most common Y-SNP M3 of haplogroup Q was analyzed, because this is known to define a founder group in South America. Studies of SNPs ancestral to Q-M3 (Q1a3a) to confirm the results or the typing of Q subclades have often been neglected. For this reason we developed a SNaPshot assay, which allows first for a hierarchical testing of all main haplogroups occurring in South American populations and second for a detailed analysis of haplogroups Q and C thought having ancient Asian descent. We selected 16 SNPs from the YCC haplogroup tree and established two multiplexes. The first multiplex (“SA Major”) includes 12 Y-SNPs defining the most frequent haplogroups occurring in South America (M42, M207, M242, M168, M3, M145, M174, M213, RPS4Y711, M45, P170, and M9). The second multiplex (“SA SpecQ”) contains Y-SNPs of haplogroup Q, especially of the subclade Q-M3 (M19, M194, P292, M3, and M199). Within our Ecuadorian sample, haplogroup Q-M3 (xM19, M194, P292, and M199) was predominant, but we also found haplogroup E and R, which can be attributed to recent admixture. Moreover, we found four out of 65 samples, which were tested to be haplogroup C3* (C-M217) the modal haplogroup in Mongolians and widespread in indigenous populations of the Russian Far East as well as in Eastern Asia. This haplogroup is not known to be the result of recent admixture and has been found only one time before in South America. Since haplogroup C occurs in Asia and in North America (C3b or C-P39), we assume that these C-lineages are ancient as well. Therefore, we established a third multiplex (“SA SpecC”), which allows the further subtyping of haplogroup C, mainly of subclade C3 defined by the Y-SNP M217 (M407, M48, P53.1, M217, P62, RPS4Y711, M93, M86, and P39). Altogether, these three multiplexes cover the most frequent haplogroups in South America and allow for a maximal resolution of the Y-chromosomal SNP diversity in Amerindian population samples.