Gross National Income Research Articles

Spatiotemporal heterogeneity in associations of national population ageing with socioeconomic and environmental factors at the global scale

Global concerted and sustained action is required under a rapid population ageing trend, while global ageing varies across countries in space and time. To support global action on sustainable development and healthy ageing, we investigated the spatiotemporal heterogeneity toward associations between national population ageing (the share of the population aged 65 and older) and various socioeconomic and environmental factors for 189 countries and territories from 2001 to 2020. We adopted Bayesian Spatiotemporally Varying Coefficients (STVC) model to fit the spatial and temporal heterogeneous associations among variables. The concept of variance partitioning was innovatively integrated into Bayesian STVC modeling to propose a spatiotemporal variance partitioning index (STVPI) for identifying the explainable percentage of influencing factors considering their spatiotemporal heterogeneous impacts. The results showed that global ageing had increased rapidly over the past 20 years, especially after 2009, and exhibited a clear geospatial agglomeration, with Europe and Africa possessing the highest and lowest regional ageing levels. The total explainable percentages of socioeconomic and environmental factors for global ageing were 61.85% [95% credible intervals (CIs): 58.57%–64.9%] and 37.40% (95% CIs: 34.38%–40.65%), respectively. Specifically, the cumulative explainable percentage of the five factors, male-to-female ratio, gross national income (GNI), particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5), normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and temperature, exceeded 90%. Over time, the annual impacts of education, male-to-female ratio, and physicians were increasing year by year; in contrast, the annual impacts of hospital beds, GNI, NDVI, PM2.5, and precipitation showed downward trends. Geospatially, the country-scale impacts of all factors showed substantial geographical disparities globally but significant clusters regionally. According to country subgroups (not-ageing, ageing, aged, and hyper-aged society), sex ratio, national income, air quality, greenness, and climate consistently played essential roles across the subgroups of four ageing stages. Our findings focusing on spatiotemporal disparities toward ageing and its influencing factors are expected to inform the formation of differentiated policies tailored for different national contexts in response to global ageing. The STVC-based STVPI is promising to be used in broader natural and social sciences to determine the relative importance of potential influencing factors within spatiotemporal dimensions to real-world phenomena.

Correlation between human development index and its components with COVID-19 indices: a global level ecologic study

BackgroundGiven that COVID-19 continues to spread worldwide, attempts to restrain the virus and to prevent the effects that critically ill patients with COVID-19 have on healthcare systems, has become a public health priority. This ecological study aimed to investigate the correlation between the Human Development Index (HDI) and the epidemiological indicators of COVID-19, including the cumulative incidence rate of cases, the cumulative incidence rate of death, performed COVID-19 tests per million, recovery rate, and case fatality rate.MethodsIn this ecological study, a data set was provided, which included the epidemiologic indices of COVID-19, HDI, and its components for each country. Correlation coefficients were used to determine linear correlation. Also, the scatter plots of the HDI for the studied countries based on the epidemiologic indices of COVID-19 were drawn.ResultsThis study showed that HDI and its components had positive correlation with a cumulative incidence rate of cases, the cumulative incidence rate of death, and performed COVID-19 tests (p < 0.001). HDI and two of its components, including literacy and Gross National Income (GNI) components had negative correlation with case fatality rate (CFR). Also, HDI and two of its components, including literacy and life expectancy components had negative correlation with recovery rate.ConclusionOur study showed that the HDI and its components can affect the epidemiological status of COVID-19. As HDI increased, the cumulative incidence rate of cases, cumulative incidence rate of death, and COVID-19 tests increased as well. As HDI increased, CFR and recovery rate decreased as well. Although the HDI is higher in high-income countries, these countries may have also better reporting and surveillance systems.

International quantification of microplastics in indoor dust: prevalence, exposure and risk assessment

This international scale study measured the prevalence of indoor microplastics (MPs) in deposited dust in 108 homes from 29 countries over a 1-month period. Dust borne MPs shape, colour, and length were determined using microscopy and the composition measured using μFTIR. Human health exposure and risk was assessed along with residential factors associated with MPs via a participant questionnaire. Samples were categorised according to each country's gross national income (GNI). Synthetic polymers dominated in low income (LI) (39%) and high income (HI) (46%) while natural fibres were the most prevalent in medium income (MI) (43%) countries. Composition and statistical analysis showed that the main sources of MPs and dust were predominantly from indoor sources. Across all GNI countries, greater vacuuming frequency was associated with lower MPs loading. High income country samples returned higher proportions of polyamides and polyester fibres, whereas in LI countries polyurethane was the most prominent MPs fibre. Exposure modelling showed infants (0–2 years) were exposed to the highest MPs dose through inhalation (4.5 × 10−5 ± 3 × 10−5) and ingestion (3.24 × 10−2 ± 3.14 × 10−2) mg/kg-Bw/day. Health risk analysis of constituent monomers of polymers indicates cancer incidence was estimated at 4.1–8.7 per million persons across age groups. This study's analysis showed socio-economic factors and age were dominant variables in determining dose and associated health outcomes of MPs in household dust.

Association of country economy and socioeconomic factors on risk factor control for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease in patients with diabetes mellitus: Insights from the DISCOVER study

BackgroundWe sought to describe global patterns in achievement of risk factor control for primary prevention in patients with T2D and explore the association of country's GNI/capita with risk factor control. MethodsThe DISCOVER study is a prospective, observational study of patients with T2D from 38 countries enrolled at initiation of second-line glucose-lowering therapy. We examined achievement of risk factor control (glycosylated hemoglobin <7%, blood pressure <140/90 mmHg, prescription of a statin) at 3 years among those without optimal control at baseline. Countries were stratified by gross national income (GNI)/capita, from 2017). We examined the impact of country GNI/capita with achievement of risk factor control. FindingsOur cohort included 9613 patients with T2D and without baseline cardiovascular disease (mean age 57.2 ± 8.7 years, 47.9% women). At baseline, 6354/7646 patients (83.1%) had suboptimal glucose control, 3449/9200 patients (37.5%) had suboptimal BP control, and 2800/4221 patients (66.7%) were not on an appropriate statin (sample sizes differed due to missing covariate data). Optimal control at 3 years of follow-up was achieved in 41% (glucose), 56% (blood pressure), and 29% (statins) of patients. There was significant variability in achievement of risk factor control across countries but no association between country GNI/capita with achievement of risk factor control (p > 0.08 for all). InterpretationIn a global, prospective study of patients with T2D, we found that cardiovascular risk factor control achievement was suboptimal despite 3 years of follow-up in specialized health care systems. Neither country-level nor patient-level socioeconomic factors fully explained this finding.

Program Against Cancer in Swaziland

Worldwide, one in eight deaths is due to cancer. Projections based on the GLOBOCAN 2012 estimates predict a substantive increase new cancer cases per year by 2035 in developing countries if preventive measures are not widely applied. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), millions of lives could be saved each year if countries made use of existing knowledge and the best cost-effective methods to prevent and treat cancer. Therefore, the aim of this study is to estimate a provisional budget against cancer in low and middle incomes countries, according the GNI-PPP, the cancer incidence and the number of populations. Economically country classification is determining with the Gross national income (GNI), per capita, Purchasing power parity (PPP), according the administrations of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank (WB) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Cancer incidence data presented are based on the most recent data available at IARC. However, population compares estimates from the US Bureau of the Census. The provisional budget is establishing among the guidelines developed by WHO for regional and national cancer control programs according to national economic development. Provisional budget against cancer is estimated to 21,128.732 (thousands of U.S $) for a population of 1,467,152 persons in Swaziland

The Study of CARICOM CSME Trade Liberalization Agreement for Economic Growth

The objective of this research is to conduct an empirical analysis of the relationship between Economic Growth and Regional trading in the CARICOM region. In this research Economic growth is measured by annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and annual Gross National Income (GNI) which is employed as the dependent variable. The economic index variables also applied in this study are the unemployment rate, import, export, total regional trade value, population, and classification. The study's findings indicated a positive relationship between Total Regional Trade value and GDP in the Caribbean region. The study also indicated a positive relationship between Regional Trade Flow and GNI. Additionally, there was a positive relationship between imports and the unemployment rate. However, exports had no impact on the unemployment rate. Also, a country’s categorization had no impact on total trade value. Throughout the investigation, the implications of the discoveries are thoroughly discussed.

Millennials' Financial Planning during Covid 19

On July 1, 2020, the World Bank released a report on the classification of countries in the world based on income levels. There are 4 categories, namely low-income, lower-middle-income, upper-middle-income, and high-income. In this report, there is good news for Indonesia, namely the increase in the level from lower-middle-income to upper-middle-income category. This classification according to the World Bank shows that Indonesia's gross national income (GNI) per capita is at the level of $4,046-$12,535. However, in July 2021, after about a year of pandemic Indonesia went back to the lower-middle income category. According to the World Bank, population growth is one of the factors that affect a country's GNI. In the Millennial Generation Profile Book, 2020 is the year the demographic bonus begins, where the millennial generation will be the backbone of the Indonesian economy. According to Strauss and Howe (1991) in Keeling (2003), the millennial generation is the generation born in the period 1982-2003. Since 2017, the number of millennials in Indonesia has been dominant compared to other generations. This shows that millennials have a big role in advancing the country's economy. Keywords: Economic Incentive, Financial Literacy, Financial Planning, Financial Technology, Millennials

Current estimates of the economic burden of blindness and visual impairment in India: A cost of illness study

Purpose:Currently, there are an estimated 4.95 million blind persons and 70 million vision impaired persons in India, out of which 0.24 million are blind children. Early detection and treatment of the leading causes of blindness such as cataract are important in reducing the prevalence of blindness and vision impairment. There are significant developments in the field of blindness prevention, management, and control since the “Vision 2020: The right to sight” initiative. Very few studies have analyzed the cost of blindness at the population level. This study was undertaken to update the information on the economic burden of blindness and visual impairment in India based on the prevalence of blindness in India. We used secondary and publicly available data and a few assumptions for our estimations.Methods:We used gross national income (GNI), disability weights, and loss of productivity metrics to calculate the economic burden of blindness and vision impairment based on the “cost of illness” methodology.Results:The estimated net loss of GNI due to blindness in India is INR 845 billion (Int$ 38.4 billion), with a per capita loss of GNI per blind person of INR 170,624 (Int$ 7,756). The cumulative loss of GNI due to avoidable blindness in India is INR 11,778.6 billion (Int$ 535 billion). The cumulative loss of GNI due to blindness increased almost three times in the past two decades. The potential loss of productivity due to vision impairment is INR 646 billion (Int$ 29.4 billion).Conclusion:These estimates provide adequate information for budgetary allocation and will help advocate the need for accelerated adoption of all four strategies of integrated people-centered eye care (IPCEC). Early detection and treatment of blindness, especially among children, is very important in reducing the economic burden; thus, there is a need for integrating primary eye care horizontally with all levels of primary healthcare.

Human and Economic Cost of Disease Burden Due to Congenital Hypothyroidism in India: Too Little, but Not Too Late.

BackgroundCongenital hypothyroidism (CH) is one of the most common preventable causes of mental retardation. Implementing newborn screening (NBS) in >52 countries enabled early detection and to initiate treatment of neonates with CH. India is yet to implement a national NBS program even though an estimated 5–15% of sick newborns suffer from genetic and metabolic disorders. Recent pilot studies confirm that the CH incidence rates range from 1 in 500 to 1 in 3,400 live births. Our objective was to estimate overall incidence rates of congenital hypothyroidism and to evaluate the costs and benefits of implementing universal NBS for CH in India.MethodsWe used the best available epidemiological and cost data to synthesize incidence rates and screening costs for CH in India. We conducted a meta-analysis of country-specific published literature and included 14 studies to calculate baseline CH incidence rates. We used two models to estimate intellectual disability in unscreened cohorts. Disability-adjusted life years (DALY) were calculated to quantify burden of disease utilizing disability weights. Direct costs including screening, confirmatory tests, and treatment costs were obtained from public and private market sources. Economic benefits were calculated from lost DALY using human capital approach and value of statistical life methods, utilizing gross national income (GNI) per capita data and value of statistical life year (VSLY), respectively. Cost discounting was used to estimate the present value of future benefits over lifetime of affected newborns.ResultsThe incidence rate of CH in India is 72 (95% CI: 58, 85) cases per 100,000 live births. Based on this data, 1 in 1,388 (95% CI: 1166, 1714) infants were diagnosed with CH in India for the year 2018. The estimated annual incidence ranged from 14,000 to 20,730 cases, and those at risk for intellectual disability ranged from 5,397 to 13,929 cases. Estimated discounted and undiscounted lost DALYs were 57,640 and 410,000, respectively. Direct annual costs for universal screening for CH in India is around USD187 million. Based on current incidence and expected severity of sequelae, economic losses ranged from USD 159 million to 1.1 billion. Benefit–cost ratios ranged from 1.8 to 6.ConclusionsUniversal NBS for CH is one of the healthcare interventions that is beneficial to prevent morbidity and cost saving. The cumulative economic benefits, derived from prevention of intellectual disability, assuming cost effectiveness threshold of three times of gross domestic product per capita, far outweigh the direct and indirect costs of screening, treatment, and surveillance throughout the life of the affected individuals. Our analysis strongly supports the argument for investing in NBS that provides good value for money and would yield substantial financial gains for the country.

Effect of Timber, Palm Oil, and Gold Output on GNI in Indonesia in the Maqashid Framework

This study had a purpose to observe if the natural resources production had a significant impact on GNI of Indonesia. this study also observed if the management of natural resources in Indonesia has been appropriate based on maqashid sharia principle. This study used secondary data gathered from Faostat for palm oil and Roundwood coniferous production, and the world bank for data about gross national income (GNI) and total gold reserved. The data was collected using purposive sampling from Indonesia, starting from 1970 to 2019. The data were analyzed using vector error correction model method and processed by Eviews version 10. The result showed that palm oil and Roundwood coniferous productions had no significant effect to GNI. However, ouput of gold production had a significant effect to GNI of Indonesia. This study also showed that in the case of palm oil and Roundwood production, the way they had obtained was not appropriate according to the principle of maqashid sharia. In the case of palm tree plantation, the plantation could damage the nature and affect the social economy of the local people. In the case of Roundwood coniferous production, there was may illegal logging to increase the output.

Hidden Foreign Aid

Few issues in global politics are as contentious as foreign aid - how much rich countries should give, in what ways, to whom. For years, it has been a commonplace that U.S. policies are stingy. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) routinely ranks the United States far behind its industrialized peers in official development assistance (ODA), measured as a percentage of gross national income (GNI). An endless parade of critics has implored the government to do more; some suggest that the Bush Administration's support for the Monterrey Consensus, which sets a goal of increasing assistance to 0.7% of GNI, commits it to do more. Against these allegations of miserliness, executive officials and certain sympathetic scholars have begun to argue that the published statistics are misleading because they fail to account for individual and corporate philanthropy. What the OECD misses, this argument runs, is the exceptional extent of Americans' private generosity. What both sides of the debate have missed, this Article proposes, is not the role of the private sector in generating foreign aid but the role of tax expenditures in subsidizing it. Better known as tax breaks or loopholes, tax expenditures are deviations from the normal tax structure "designed to favor a particular industry, activity, or class of persons." They take the form of deductions, exemptions, exclusions, deferrals, credits, or preferential rates. Economically, these "expenditures" may be seen as equivalent to direct government outlays: if U.S. taxpayers saved $70 billion last year from, say, the mortgage interest deduction, the government therefore gave a $70 billion (implicit) subsidy to homeownership. Stanley Surrey pioneered the theory of tax expenditures in the late 1960s, and the concept is now widely, though not universally, credited. Since 1974, Congress has required the annual publication of a tax expenditure budget.

A Social Network Analysis of International Creative Goods Flow

This study used social network analysis to examine the structure of the international trade of creative goods. The results showed that the US, Canada, Europe, and certain Asian countries (e.g., China, the Republic of Korea, Japan, and Thailand) ranked high in terms of out-degree/in-degree, eigenvector, and betweenness centrality compared to other countries in the international creative goods trade network. A quadratic assignment procedure (QAP) revealed interrelations between each creative goods networks. In particular, the new media network strongly interacted with the design and art crafts network. Furthermore, multiple regression confirmed that each country’s gross domestic product (GDP), gross national income (GNI) per capita, population, inbound tourism expenditure, and gross domestic expenditure on R&amp;D (GERD) influenced their international trade of creative goods.

Smoothing the Way or Stirring the Pot: The Impact of Foreign Aid Shocks on Conflict in Recipient Countries

For many developing countries, aid constitutes a large share of state revenue, a high proportion of which is vastly volatile and unpredictable. This paper focuses on the impact of shocks in foreign aid disbursement on the stability of poor countries, specially on two-sided conflict (internal armed conflict), one-sided conflict from the government (purges) and one-sided conflict from the opposition (assassination, riots and terrorism). The effect of erratic aid disbursement is conditional on how recipient governments react to these shocks and on their ability to make credible commitments. To estimate the effect of an aid shock on conflict and to test how state capacity mediates this relationship, an instrumental variable strategy is proposed based on donors’ Gross National Income (GNI). The main findings indicate that (1) negative (positive) aid shocks increase (decrease) one-sided conflict from the opposition, suggesting that negative aid shocks primarily trigger social unrest from the population; and (2) the effect of negative aid shocks on one-sided conflict from the opposition is especially large in countries with weak state capacity.

An Empirical Analysis of the Import Demand of Agricultural Products in Korea

세계화의 진전으로 글로벌기업은 두 개 이상의 국가가 참여하는 생산 네트워크인 글로벌 가치사슬(GVC; Global Value Chain)을 적극적으로 구축하였다. 그러나 공급망을 마비시키는 대규모 재해가 빈번해지고 있으며 최근 코로나19 발생으로 글로벌 공급망 위기는 고조되고 있다. 공급망 위기는 농업 분야에도 영향을 미치고 있는데 우리나라 농업은 영세성과 낮은 생산성으로 인해 쌀을 제외한 대부분 곡물을 수입에 의존하고 있어 국제곡물의 공급망에 발생하는 다양한 불확실성을 대비하기 위해 우리나라 농산물의 수입구조에 대한 분석이 필요한 상황이다. 본고는 우리나라 전체수입과 농축수산물, 농축산물, 7대 곡물, 6대 열대과일, 5대 축산물에 대한 수입수요함수를 추정하고 수입수요 결정에 영향을 미치는 요인과 정도에 대해서 측정하였다. 분석자료의 시계열 안정성을 확보하기 위하여 단위근 검정을 실시하고 차분변수를 활용하여 OLS 분석을 하였다. 분석을 통해 우리나라 수입수요는 실질실효환율(REEXR), 환율(EXR), 경제성장률(GROWTH), 국민총소득(GNI), 소비자물가지수(CPI) 등에 의해 영향을 받는다는 결과를 얻었다. 수입물가(IMPR) 상승은 수입재의 가격을 인상시켜 수입을 감소시킬 것이라는 예상하에 분석한 결과 1% 유의수준하에서 수입물가상승은 수입을 증가시킨다는 분석결과를 얻었다. 우리나라의 농산물 수입은 국내 농업생산성의 한계를 극복하기 위한 대안으로 부각되고 있지만, 중장기적으로 국내 농산물 여건을 개선하여 경쟁력을 향상시키고 수입시장을 관리할 수 있는 여건을 마련할 필요가 있다고 판단된다.With the progress of globalization, global companies have actively established the Global Value Chain (GVC), a production network involving two or more countries, but large-scale disasters that paralyze the supply chain are frequent and the global supply chain crisis is escalating. Due to the small size and low productivity of the agricultural sector, Korea relies on imports of most grains except rice. In this study, the import demand function for Korea s total imports, agricultural, livestock, agricultural, livestock, seven major grains, six major tropical fruits, and five major livestock products was estimated and the effect of factors affecting import demand determination was empirically analyzed. As for the analysis method, a unit root test was performed to secure the time series stability of the analysis data, and OLS analysis was performed using difference variables. The following results were derived through empirical analysis. The analysis results were derived that Korea s import demand is affected by the real effective exchange rate (REEXR), exchange rate (EXR), economic growth rate (GROWTH), gross national income (GNI), and consumer price index (CPI). In particular, as a result of an analysis under the expectation that an increase in import prices(IMPR) will increase the price of imported goods and reduce imports, an analysis result was derived that an increase in import prices increases imports under a 1% significance level. Based on the analysis results, Korea s agricultural imports are emerging as an alternative to overcome the limitations of domestic agricultural productivity, but it is necessary to improve domestic agricultural conditions in the mid- to long-term to improve competitiveness.

From the Ancient Eudaimonia to Modern Indices: A Critical View

GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is an index that has been used by all free economy countries for almost a century. However, it has been criticized by many researchers and politicians for its misleading messages about the real wealth of people, its inability to evaluate the effect of environmentally harmful activities, the well-being of societies, the exclusion of non-market activities which exist in all economies, and the non-transactional services provided by the natural environment. This study aims to analyze and evaluate GDP and ten more alternative indicators as to their Simplicity, Comprehensibility, Completeness and Reliability, using a questionnaire addressed to experts, i.e., university professors. SWB (Subjective Well-Being) has been assessed as the preferred index for an overall evaluation, while the FSI (Failed States Index) ranks in the last position. GDP received its highest ranking as second in Reliability, with Gross National Income (GNI) ranking first. SWB refers to and evokes the direct democracy of 5th century Athens with its Simplicity, Comprehensibility, and Completeness, but not for its Reliability, due to the difficulty of its measurement. A combination of SWB with GNI might produce a reliable GDP alternative.

Emerging inflammatory bowel disease demographics, phenotype, and treatment in South Asia, South-East Asia, and Middle East: Preliminary findings from the Inflammatory Bowel Disease-Emerging Nations' Consortium.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is emerging in the newly industrialized countries of South Asia, South-East Asia, and the Middle East, yet epidemiological data are scarce. We performed a cross-sectional study of IBD demographics, disease phenotype, and treatment across 38 centers in 15 countries of South Asia, South-East Asia, and Middle East. Intergroup comparisons included gross national income (GNI) per capita. Among 10400 patients, ulcerative colitis (UC) was twice as common as Crohn's disease (CD), with a male predominance (UC 6678, CD 3495, IBD unclassified 227, and 58% male). Peak age of onset was in the third decade, with a low proportion of elderly-onset IBD (5% age>60). Familial IBD was rare (5%). The extent of UC was predominantly distal (proctitis/left sided 67%), with most being treated with mesalamine (94%), steroids (54%), or immunomodulators (31%). Ileocolic CD (43%) was the commonest, with low rates of perianal disease (8%) and only 6% smokers. Diagnostic delay for CD was common (median 12months; interquartile range 5-30). Treatment of CD included mesalamine, steroids, and immunomodulators (61%, 51%, and 56%, respectively), but a fifth received empirical antitubercular therapy. Treatment with biologics was uncommon (4% UC and 13% CD), which increased in countries with higher GNI per capita. Surgery rates were 0.1 (UC) and 2 (CD) per 100 patients per year. The IBD-ENC cohort provides insight into IBD in South-East Asia and the Middle East, but is not yet population based. UC is twice as common as CD, familial disease is uncommon, and rates of surgery are low. Biologic use correlates with per capita GNI.

Effect of foreign direct investment on gross national income in Nigeria, 2006-2017

Effect of foreign direct investment on gross national income in Nigeria, 2006-2017 Kelechi Johnmary Ani Alex Ekwueme Federal University, Nigeria E-mail: kelechi.ani@funai.edu.ng Chigozie Onu Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria E-mail: asiano.jc@gmail.com Submission: 11/4/2020 Revision: 12/15/2020 Accept: 1/5/2021 ABSTRACT The study analyzed the effect of foreign direct investment on gross national income over the period of 2006- 2019. The main type of data used in this study is secondary; which were sourced from various publications of Central Bank of Nigeria, such as; Statistical Bulletin, Annual Reports and Statement of Accounts. The regression analysis of the ordinary least square (OLS) is the estimation technique that was employed in this study to determine the effect of the Direct Foreign Investment on gross national income in Nigeria. The cointegration test showed existence of a long run relationship and an indication that 1 cointegrating vectors exist at 5% level of significance among the variables which was corrected with error correction mode (ECM). The result showed that foreign direct investment had a positive effect on gross national income during the period 2006 – 2019. It also revealed that gross domestic product, exchange rate and unemployment rate has a positive effect on gross national income in Nigeria during the same period. The study recommends that government should try to develop trade zones, which are solely based on free economic movements and policies. The study recommends official re-consideration of different determinants of gross national income (GNI) attractions. Government incentives, infrastructure and policies should be put in place to make it easy for general foreign investors, to find Nigeria safe and reliable to invest. Finally, unique fiscal and monetary policies should be formed to strengthen the other macroeconomic variables which will help to overcome the situation of shocks in Nigeria while hosting Foreign Direct Investment inflow for future sustainable economic development.

Sustainable Development Goals and Problems of Measuring Poverty and Extreme Poverty

The article presents the results of the study on improving the methodology for measuring poverty and extreme poverty in accordance with the fundamental UN document – the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The author argues his position that when assessing the achievement of targets for the eradication of extreme poverty within the framework of achieving Goal 1 (SDG 1) at the national level, one should not be guided by the average threshold value of extreme poverty for all countries. It is necessary to focus on the gross national income (GNI) per capita, an indicator developed by the World Bank (according to the Atlas method). For the first time, a comparative analysis of the interpretations of SDG 1 by Russian and European researchers, as well as experts of international organizations is carried out, and threshold values of global poverty for groups of countries with different levels of GNI per capita are analyzed. It allows us to identify the main problem of monitoring the eradication of extreme poverty in Russia: the low information content of data on socio-demographic groups experiencing extreme poverty, which, in turn, hinders the formation of effective public policy measures to reduce poverty and eradicate extreme poverty. The paper shows that ignoring the indicator of extreme poverty, calculated depending on the size of GNI per capita using the Atlas method, can lead to erroneous conclusions in the Voluntary National Review of the Russian Federation on achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals. The author proposes to select indicators of global extreme poverty in accordance with the level of socio-economic development of Russia and to assess the eradication of extreme poverty, taking them into account on a par with the national poverty line. In this context, the author draws attention to inaccuracies in domestic publications related to the interpretation of the concept of «extreme poverty», which can lead to distortion of estimates.

Cumulative human exposure and environmental occurrence of phthalate esters: A global perspective

In the current investigation, the distribution and extent of human exposure of phthalate esters (PAEs) have been reported on global extent based on computed indices. The proposed indices were calculated based on environmental concentrations, toxicity, occurrence, environmental fate, and transport of PAEs. The cumulative phthalate exposure index (PEI) based on the phthalate pollution index (PPI) was mapped on a global scale based on the existing data reported in the literature. The results revealed that the PAEs are heterogeneously distributed globally, and about 30% of total environmental PAEs are ultimately exposed to the average human being. The comparative distribution of PAEs in various environmental compartments including urban-rural, indoor-outdoor, home-dormitory-classroom, and their exposure likelihood were studied based on indices. More than 90% of total human exposure of PAEs was observed to be from indoor environmental compartments. Significantly high exposure was observed in the urban population as compared to the rural population. About 70% of the total phthalate pollution sub-index of dust was observed from home followed by a classroom of ∼15% and then a dormitory of ∼10%. In addition, the indices were equated with the current human development index (HDI), gross national income (GNI), and exposure of particulate matter of each country. Based on current findings, the population living in the areas where >20 μg/m3 of particulate matter has been reported are possibly exposed with higher PAEs. The indices were highly diversified at high HDI (0.9) values and between 40,000 and 50,000 $ per capita income due to different usage of phthalate-containing products, disposal, and extensive monitoring work carried out by the developed and developing countries.

Global inequalities in the double burden of malnutrition and associations with globalisation: a multilevel analysis of Demographic and Health Surveys from 55 low-income and middle-income countries, 1992–2018

SummaryBackgroundLow-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) face a double burden of malnutrition (DBM), whereby overnutrition and undernutrition coexist within the same individual, household, or population. This analysis investigates global inequalities in household-level DBM, expressed as a stunted child with an overweight mother, and its association with economic, social, and political globalisation across country income and household wealth.MethodsWe pooled anthropometric and demographic data for 1 132 069 children (aged <5 years) and their mothers (aged 15–49 years) from 189 Demographic and Health Surveys in 55 LMICs between 1992 and 2018. These data were combined with country-level data on economic, social, and political globalisation from the Konjunkturforschungsstelle Globalisation Index and gross national income (GNI) from the World Bank. Multivariate associations between DBM and household wealth, GNI, and globalisation and their interactions were tested using multilevel logistic regression models with country and year fixed-effects and robust standard errors clustered by country.FindingsThe probability of DBM was higher among richer households in poorer LMICs and poorer households in richer LMICs. Economic globalisation was associated with higher odds of DBM among the poorest households (odds ratio 1·49, 95% CI 1·20–1·86) compared with the richest households. These associations attenuated as GNI increased. Social globalisation was associated with higher odds of DBM (1·39, 95% CI 1·16–1·65), independently of household wealth or country income. No associations were identified between political globalisation and DBM.InterpretationIncreases in economic and social globalisation were associated with higher DBM, although the impacts of economic globalisation were mostly realised by the world's poorest. The economic patterning of DBM observed in this study calls for subpopulation-specific double-duty actions, which should further aim to mitigate the potential negative and unequal impacts of globalisation.FundingUK Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council.TranslationsFor the Spanish and Portuguese translations of the abstract see Supplementary Materials section.