Gross National Income Research Articles

An investigation of the relation between life expectancy & socioeconomic variables using path analysis for Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) in Bangladesh.

In today's world, the key variable for measuring population health is life expectancy (LE). The purpose of this research is to find out how life expectancy is related to other factors and develop a model to account for the predictors that contribute to LE. This study is also conducted to investigate and measure the effect of socioeconomic variables on LE in Bangladesh. In this study, the predictor variables are employment rate, gross national income (GNI), population growth rate, unemployment rate, and age dependency ratio. Path analysis disintegrated bivariate analysis and showed that employment rate, GNI, and age dependency ratio are significantly related to life expectancy, although bivariate analysis showed all variables are significantly related to LE. The maximum values of significant factors, GNI and employment rates, are $1930 and 21.32% happened in 2019, which is positively correlated with life expectancy. Also, the maximum value of the age dependency ratio (81.52%) happened in 1991, whereas the maximum value of the dependent variable LE (72.59 years) happened in 2019. It has been observed that LE, GNI, and employment rates all rise with one another. There exists an adverse relationship between LE and age dependency ratio. Based on comparisons with other highly developed nations, Bangladesh's GNI needs to grow faster than other significant factors to boost life expectancy. We have forecasted variables that were significantly related to LE until 2030 for the purpose of sustainable development goals, especially the 3rd goal.

Impact of COVID-19 Containment Measures on Unemployment: A Multi-country Analysis Using a Difference-in-Differences Framework.

At the start of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, in the absence of pharmaceutical interventions, countries resorted to containment measures to stem the spread of the disease. In this paper, we have conducted a global study using a sample of 46 countries to evaluate whether these containment measures resulted in unemployment. We use a difference-in-differences (DID) specification with a heterogenous intervention to show the varying intensity effect of containment measures on unemployment, on a sample of 46 countries. We explain variations in unemployment from January-June 2020 using stringency of containment measures, controlling for gross domestic product (GDP) growth, inflation rate, exports, cases of COVID-19 per million, COVID-19-specific fiscal spending, time fixed effects, region fixed effects, and region trends. We conduct further subset analyses by COVID-cases quintiles and gross national income (GNI) per capita quintiles. The median level of containment stringency in our sample was 43.7. Our model found that increasing stringency to this level would result in unemployment increasing by 1.87 percentage points (or 1.67 pp, after controlling for confounding). For countries with below median COVID-19 cases and below median GNI per capita, this effect is larger. Containment measures have a strong impact on unemployment. This effect is larger in poorer countries and countries with low COVID-19 cases. Given that unemployment has profound effects on mortality and morbidity, this consequence of containment measures may compound the adverse health effects of the pandemic for the most vulnerable groups. It is necessary for governments to consider this in future pandemic management, and to attempt to alleviate the impact of containment measures via effective fiscal spending.

Analysis of Worldwide Greenhouse and Carbon Monoxide Gas Emissions: Which Countries Exhibit a Special Pattern? A Closer Look via Twitter.

There is significant global concern about the harmful effects of greenhouse gas and carbon monoxide emissions (deforestation, air pollution, global warming, etc.). The 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change aspires to reduce global warming by achieving a climate-neutral world. Research has been carried out to calculate and diminish the aforementioned emissions in waste, power industry, transport, building, in addition to other areas. The aim of this paper is to analyse the carbon and greenhouse gas emissions across countries around the globe in order to find patterns and correlate them to socio-economic indicators [gross national income (GNI), industrial production (IPI) and human development indexes (HDI)] as well as Twitter interactions regarding climate change. For this purpose, time series and socio-economic data have been downloaded from different repositories including EDGAR (Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research), World Bank and UNDP (United Nations Development Programme). Although classical clustering algorithms have already been used in the examination of some environmental issues, we use a non-parametric time series clustering method, which has been suggested in certain scientific literature as a more flexible approach, since any ad hoc parametric assumptions are required. The chosen socio-economic indicators have also demonstrated their relevance in pieces of research related to various fields. With respect to Twitter, which is one of the most popular social networks nowadays, significant analysis has also been performed on the basis of capturing citizens' perceptions on a multitude of matters. We found that several countries such as Brazil, India, China, Nigeria, Russia, United States, Spain, Andorra, Greece, and Qatar show differences in carbon and greenhouse gas emissions patterns. Besides, there does not seem to be a correlation between GNI, IPI and HDI as well as the above mentioned emissions Regarding Twitter interactions, a dissimilarity in the distribution of hashtags was detected between the aforementioned countries and the rest of the world. This research can help to identify countries in which more governmental measures are needed to reduce the type of emissions analysed in certain industrial sectors. In addition, it points out the topics related to climate change that seem to generate the most debate on Twitter for countries with an unusual pattern. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s41742-023-00510-4.

Pharmacovigilance in High-Income Countries: Current Developments and a Review of Literature

The world bank has classified 80 economies based on their Gross National Income (GNI) per capita as High-Income. European Medicines Agency (EMA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA) are the major regulatory stakeholders driving global pharmacovigilance regulations. The purpose of this article is to describe pharmacovigilance systems and processes in high-income countries, particularly those that are also members of the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH). All high-income countries are members of the WHO PIDM. The income level of a country has a direct relationship with medicine safety measures. All ten pioneering members of the Uppsala monitoring centre are from high-income countries and were the first responders after the thalidomide tragedy by making drug evaluation committees, introducing the ADR reporting forms and taking safety measures. Despite access to the VigiBase, some countries have separate databases for managing and analyzing data like Canada Vigilance online database, FDA Adverse Event Reporting System, the French pharmacovigilance database and European Union's system Eudravigilance. All high-income countries have robust pharmacovigilance systems. USFDA and EMA are the world leaders in the field of pharmacovigilance. Most high-income countries follow EMA guidelines. Medicine safety is directly influenced by a country's income level.

Challenges and opportunities in shared care for international patients treated with cellular therapy for nonmalignant disease

As cellular therapies gradually become the mainstay of treatment for several nonmalignant diseases, there appears to be varied accessibility to these therapies globally. Despite considerable burden of nonmalignant conditions, such as sickle cell disease, thalassemia, and aplastic anemia in populations of low-middle-income countries, the utilization of cellular therapies remain sparse because of lack of resources. Globally, the frequency of hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) has increased disproportionately in countries with higher gross national income (GNI) per capita, governmental healthcare expenditures, and a high human development index. This leads to a large subset of international patients seeking care in the United States. This review summarizes the unique set of challenges that often arise when offering sophisticated therapies such as HSCT to international patients constituting of cross-cultural, logistical, financial, and medical challenges and the opportunities that are available to bridge the gap.

Assessment of Paratuberculosis international official reporting in Europe using the information supplied to the WOAH by National Veterinary Services.

The present study characterizes the epidemiological situation of Paratuberculosis (PTB) in Europe during the last 24 years, using the information officially reported to the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) by veterinary services of the European countries. The prevalence of PTB at country level was described during the study period. A Cox proportional hazards (PH) regression analysis was implemented to evaluate the notification behaviours. Results from this work indicate that the most affected countries are in Southern and Western Europe, whereas PTB presence appears lower in Northern and Eastern Europe. PTB was routinely declared as a notifiable disease in 65% of the countries. Less than 50% of the countries routinely implemented passive surveillance, and only 19%, reported active surveillance for disease detection. Results from the Cox PH regression indicate that the Gross National Income (GNI) per capita and the application of active surveillance significantly influence the recurrence of PTB reporting. In countries with lower and upper middle income, the hazard of recurrence is 0.13 and 0.18 times lower than in countries with high income. The hazard of recurrence in countries that infrequently and moderately applied active surveillance is 1.99 and 1.65 times higher than in countries that routinely applied active surveillance. Findings from this work highlight an important variation in reporting behaviours, disease status and surveillance across Europe.

Applicability of European Society of Cardiology guidelines according to gross national income.

To assess the feasibility to comply with the recommended actions of ESC guidelines on general cardiology areas in 102 countries and assess how compliance relates to the country's income level. All recommendations from seven ESC guidelines on general cardiology areas were extracted and labelled on recommended actions. A survey was sent to all 102 ESC national and affiliated cardiac societies (NCSs). Respondents were asked to score recommended actions on their availability in clinical practice on a four-point Likert scale (fully available, mostly/often available, mostly/often unavailable, fully unavailable), and select the top three barriers perceived as being responsible for limiting their national availability. Applicability was assessed overall, per World Bank gross national income (GNI) level, and per guideline.A total of 875 guideline recommendations on general cardiology was extracted. Responses were received from 64 of 102 (62.7%) NCSs. On average, 71·6% [95% confidence interval (CI): 68.6-74.6] of the actions were fully available, 9.9% (95% CI: 8.7-11.1) mostly/often available, 6.7% (95% CI: 5.4-8.0) mostly/often unavailable, and 11·8% (95% CI: 9.5-14.1) fully unavailable. In low-income countries (LICs), substantially more actions were fully unavailable [29·4% (95% CI: 22.6-36.3)] compared with high-income countries [HICs, countries 2.4% (95% CI: 1.2-3.7); P < 0.05]. Nevertheless, a proportion of actions with the lowest availability scores were often fully or mostly unavailable independent of GNIs. Actions were most often not available due to lack of reimbursement and other financial barriers. Local implementation of ESC guidelines on general cardiology is high in HICs and low in LICs , being inversely correlated with country gross national incomes.

Research Article: Program Against Cancer in Sudan

Worldwide, one in eight deaths is due to cancer. Projections based on the GLOBOCAN 2012 estimates predict a substantive increase new cancer cases per year by 2035 in developing countries if preventive measures are not widely applied. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), millions of lives could be saved each year if countries made use of existing knowledge and the best cost-effective methods to prevent and treat cancer. Therefore, the aim of this study is to estimate a provisional budget against cancer in low and middle incomes countries, according the GNI-PPP, the cancer incidence and the number of population. Economically country classification is determining with the Gross national income (GNI), per capita, Purchasing power parity (PPP), according the administrations of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank (WB) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Cancer incidence data presented are based on the most recent data available at IARC. However, population compares estimates from the US Bureau of the Census. The provisional budget is establishing among the guidelines developed by WHO for regional and national cancer control programs according to national economic development. Provisional budget against cancer is estimated to 248,987.936 (thousands of U.S $) for a population of 37,345,935 persons in Sudan.

Strengths and weaknesses in the implementation of the IHR (2005) in low GNI countries

Abstract Background The International Health Regulations (IHR) 2005 are an international legal instrument adopted by World Health Organization General Assembly to strengthen global health security and empower the countries to prevent and respond to public health threats. Methods This study was done within the Joint Action on Strengthened International Health Regulations and Preparedness in the EU (SHARP JA) with the aim to assess the strengths and weaknesses in preparedness and IHR implementation in order to develop and improve countries’ IHR capacities. Desk-based review and analysis of available data from the States Parties Annual Report tool (SPAR) from 2019 were done. Data (for 13 IHR capacities with 24 indicators) were analyzed for 15 countries participating in SHARP JA with gross national income (GNI) less than 90% of the EU average. Results The overall capacity for IHR implementation in low GNI countries is 69%, ranging from 33% in Bosnia and Herzegovina to 84% in Spain. The highest capacities are recognized in the area of Legislation and financing - 78%, IHR Coordination &amp; NFP Functions - 77%, Food Safety - 76%, and Health service provision - 76%. The weak areas with the need for further improvement are recorded in the Points of entry (PoE) - 51%, Risk Communication - 52%, Chemical events - 60%, National health emergency framework - 65%, Surveillance - 66%, and Human Resources - 67%. The overall IHR capacity of low GNI countries is lower compared to the SHARP JA countries and the European average (76% and 73% respectively). Conclusions The results have shown the strongest and the weakest points of the IHR implementation in low GNI countries. This indicates the need for capacity building and further development in identified areas (Points of entry, Risk Communication, Chemical events, National health emergency framework, Surveillance, and Human Resources). Key messages • The assessment of the strengths and weaknesses in preparedness and IHR implementation is the key prerequisite for identifying countries’ needs for their capacity enhancement. • Special attention should be given to the strengthening low GNI countries’ capacities.

KEANGGOTAAN INDONESIA PADA INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT DALAM MEWUJUDKAN PEMBANGUNAN NASIONAL

Indonesia's membership in the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development is one step in realizing national development as the nation's ideals. This study aims to explain the scope of the IBRD related to its function and position for its member countries and to describe the status and role of Indonesia as a member of the IBRD in the context of realizing National Development. The research method used is normative or doctrinal research, which means this research is carried out using secondary data obtained indirectly but obtained through other parties, namely through library research in the form of related books, theses, journals, articles, works. writing and various information obtained through the internet with a conceptual approach and qualitative data analysis techniques. The results of this study indicate that the scope of the World Bank/IBRD is not only limited to its function in providing financial loan assistance but also technical assistance related to consulting services and strategies through national development programs. As a member of the IBRD, Indonesia has the status of a lower middle class country which was previously an upper middle class country based on Gross National Income (GNI) and has the status of a developed country in WHO which has an influence on Indonesia's national development.

Budgetary allocation and social services deterioration in the fourth Nigerian republic (1999 to 2021)

The deterioration in the education and health sectors is alarming and a concern to major stakeholders in Nigeria. This study examined the effect of the budgetary allocation based on 20% United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) benchmark for education and 15% 2001 African Union Abuja declaration on the social services deterioration in the fourth Nigerian republic. Specifically, the study examined the effect of budgetary allocation efficiency in education and health sectors on human development index from 1999 – 2021. Corruption perspective index (CPI) and gross national income (GNI) per capita was introduced as control variables. Robust multiple regression analysis was used to analyzed the data. Results revealed that budget allocation efficiency in the education sector has significant negative effect on human development index while budgetary allocation efficiency on the health sector has positive significant effect on human development index. The implication of these findings is that the Nigerian state didn’t take education serious or that endemic corruption and budgetary indiscipline has overwhelmed the entire process. We recommend that state of emergency should be declared on education funding to avert further degeneration; funding of health sector should be increased at least to the level of the 2001 Abuja declaration; and increase citizen participation in the budgetary process to address the menace of corruption to foster accountability and transparency. Keywords: Budgetary allocation, Social services deterioration, Corruption, Human Development Index (HDI), Gross National Income (GNI) per Capita DOI: 10.7176/DCS/12-7-06 Publication date: November 30 th 2022

Should We Provide More Economic Aid to Recipient Countries in Crisis?: Focusing on the Effectiveness of Financial Aid

This study analyzed the impact of bilateral aid among official development aid on recipient countries. The significance is that the effect of aid was investigated in a complex manner by dividing the perspective of economic growth measured by Gross National Income (GNI) per capita and quality of life measured by the Human Development Index(HDI). In addition, limited empirical analysis by continent or country in previous studies was expanded to cover all recipient countries. Official Development Assistance (ODA) data from 2005 to 2019 were collected. A data sample of bilateral aid from 60 countries was constructed from the official development aid data from 88 recipient countries. According to the Fixed-Effect (FE) and Random-Effect (RE) model estimation coefficient, the donor’s continued support was a statistically significant variable. This study concluded that the donor country’s continuous aid is important, but the recipient country’s political and administrative capabilities are also important factors in improving people’s economic quality of life.

Program against Cancer in Oceania Low and Middle-Income Countries

Worldwide, one in eight deaths is due to cancer. Projections based on the GLOBOCAN 2012 estimates predict a substantive increase new cancer cases per year by 2035 in developing countries if preventive measures are not widely applied. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), millions of lives could be saved each year if countries made use of existing knowledge and the best cost-effective methods to prevent and treat cancer. Therefore, the aim of this study is to estimate a provisional budget against cancer in low and middle incomes countries, according the GNI-PPP, the cancer incidence and the number of populations. Economically country classification is determining with the Gross national income (GNI), per capita, Purchasing power parity (PPP), according the administrations of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank (WB) and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Cancer incidence data presented are based on the most recent data available at IARC. However, population compares estimates from the US Bureau of the Census. The provisional budget is establishing among the guidelines developed by WHO for regional and national cancer control programs according to national economic development. Provisional budget against cancer is estimated to 10,291,503 (thousands of U.S $) for a population of 375,495,344 persons in Oceania.

Systematic review and meta-analysis for suicide associated with air pollution and ambient temperature

BACKGROUND AND AIM Study results for air pollution, ambient temperature, and suicide are inconclusive. Given the health threats of climate change, a comprehensive review of the impacts of temperature and air pollution on suicide is needed with a focus on disparities of risks by population characteristics such as income and baseline health risks. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis for suicide risks associated with short-term exposure to temperature and air pollution. METHODS Pubmed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched for English-language publications using relevant keywords. Observational studies assessing risks of daily suicide and suicide attempts associated with temperature, particulate matter (PM₁₀, PM₂.₅), ozone (O₃), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and carbon monoxide (CO) were included. Random-effect meta-analysis pooled risk ratios (RRs) for daily suicide for an interquartile range (IQR) increase in exposure. Meta-regression analysis examined effect modification by income level based on gross national income (GNI) per capita, national suicide rates, and average level of exposure factors. RESULTS In summary, 18 studies for air pollution and 32 studies for temperature across 24 countries were included. RRs of suicide per IQR increase in temperature, PM₂.₅, PM₁₀, and NO₂ were 1.09 (95% CI: 1.06–1.13), 1.02 (95% CI: 1.00–1.05), 1.01 (95% CI: 1.00–1.03), and 1.03 (95% CI: 1.00–1.07), respectively. O₃, SO₂, and CO were not associated with suicide. RR of suicide was significantly higher in lower-income than higher-income countries (1.20, 95% CI: 1.14–1.26 vs. 1.09, 95% CI: 1.07–1.11 per 7.1&amp;#xb0;C increased temperature). Suicide risks associated with air pollution did not significantly differ by income level, national suicide rates, or average exposure levels. CONCLUSIONS Suicide was associated with temperature, PM, and NO₂. research gaps were found for addressing the interactions between air pollution and temperature on estimating suicide risks, which warrants future studies. Keywords Air pollution, climate change, suicide, temperature, meta-analysis.

Happiness at the Macro Level: A Critical Discussion on the Compatibility of Different Indicators

This paper presents a critical discussion mainly based on the macro-level (societal) determinants of happiness by focusing on gender equality, gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, and countries’ commitment to reducing inequality. The aim is to critically evaluate the compatibility of these components through the examples of happiest and unhappiest countries to arrive at conclusions regarding the importance of these means as a whole. Rankings based on these determinants reveal an apparent compatibility to exist for both ends of happiness with countries’ gender equality, GDP per capita, and commitment to reducing inequality as well as gross national income (GNI) per capita (based on purchasing power parity [PPP]) and Gini coefficient. Exceptional cases are discussed based on their sociological and socioeconomic contexts. Further research has been determined to be needed that will examine happiness at the macro level using an inclusive multidimensional approach rather than only focusing on a single indicator, in particular by taking into account various means of inequality, primarily regarding gender, income, living standards/conditions as well as issues such as access to health, education, employment opportunities, and information, as parts of the broader concept.

Mortality in Four Waves of COVID-19 Is Differently Associated with Healthcare Capacities Affected by Economic Disparities.

Background: The greatest challenges are imposed on the overall capacity of disease management when the cases reach the maximum in each wave of the pandemic. Methods: The cases and deaths for the four waves of COVID-19 in 119 countries and regions (CRs) were collected. We compared the mortality across CRs where populations experience different economic and healthcare disparities. Findings: Among 119 CRs, 117, 112, 111, and 55 have experienced 1, 2, 3, and 4 waves of COVID-19 disease, respectively. The average mortality rates at the disease turning point were 0.036, 0.019. 0.017, and 0.015 for the waves 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Among 49 potential factors, income level, gross national income (GNI) per capita, and school enrollment are positively correlated with the mortality rates in the first wave, but negatively correlated with the rates of the rest of the waves. Their values for the first wave are 0.253, 0.346 and 0.385, respectively. The r value for waves 2, 3, and 4 are −0.310, −0.293, −0.234; −0.263, −0.284, −0.282; and −0.330, −0.394, −0.048, respectively. In high-income CRs, the mortality rates in waves 2 and 3 were 29% and 28% of that in wave 1; while in upper-middle-income CRs, the rates for waves 2 and 3 were 76% and 79% of that in wave 1. The rates in waves 2 and 3 for lower-middle-income countries were 88% and 89% of that in wave 1, and for low-income countries were 135% and 135%. Furthermore, comparison among the largest case numbers through all waves indicated that the mortalities in upper- and lower-middle-income countries is 65% more than that of the high-income countries. Interpretation: Conclusions from the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic do not apply to the following waves. The clinical outcomes in developing countries become worse along with the expansion of the pandemic.

Comparative Study on Lower-Middle-, Upper-Middle-, and Higher-Income Economies of ASEAN for Fiscal and Current Account Deficits: A Panel Econometric Analysis

For the last three decades, ASEAN has been facing a persistent fiscal deficit. However, the impact of fiscal deficit on the current account deficit in the sub-groups of ASEAN is still unknown. This study aims to investigate the impact of fiscal deficit on current account deficit and their relationship among the three sub-groups of ASEAN which are based on gross national income (GNI), i.e., lower-middle-, upper-middle-, and higher-income countries. The analysis covers the panel data collected over the span of the last three decades (1990–2020) for ten Southeast Asian nations (ASEAN). The analyses incorporate the panel methodology for data analysis such as panel unit root for checking data stationarity, cointegration testing, panel autoregressive distributed lag (PARDL) for short- and long-run analysis, cointegration regression (fully modified and dynamic ordinary least squares) for significance, the panel Dumitrescu and Hurlin Granger causality test for examining causal relationships in tested variables, and stability diagnostics and CUMSUM and CUSUMSQ techniques for structural breaks and coefficient stability in the model. In lower-middle-income economies (LMIE), results indicate the existence of a unidirectional causal relationship from the current account deficit (CAD) to the fiscal deficit (FD), suggesting a reverse causal relationship from CAD to FD. In the long run, FD does not significantly induce CAD, while real interest rate (RIR) and exchange rate (EXC) influence CAD. In upper-middle-income economies (UMIE), results specify that there is no causality between FD and CAD. The RIR, EXC, and FD are significant to CAD in the long run. In higher-income economies (HIE), RIR and FD have an influence on CAD in the long run period. Moreover, from CAD to FD, a unidirectional causal association exists, and likewise for LMIE. This is a reverse causal relationship from CAD to the FD, supporting the current account targeting hypothesis (CATH) in both the LMIE and HIE groups. This study recommends that the LMIE and HIE groups can use the fiscal deficit as a tool to eliminate the unfavorable current account position. Policymakers can target EXC and RIR to stabilize CAD in long run. In UMIE and HIE, policymakers must consider FD alarming, as it can induce CAD in the long run. The RIR can be the targeted factor in the sub-groups of ASEAN.

Economic Evaluation of Nucleic Acid Testing for Screening of Blood Donations for Thalassemia Patients (ECONAT) in Western India.

Transfusion Transmitted infections(TTI) are of significant concern for blood safety. The thalassemia patients who receive multiple transfusions are at an increased risk of TTIs and the Nucleic Acid Test (NAT ) has been advocated for safe blood. Though NAT can reduce the window period compared to serology, cost is a constraint. The thalassemia patient and NAT yield data from the centralized NAT lab in AIIMS Jodhpur was evaluated for cost-effectiveness using the Markov model. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was calculated by dividing the difference between the cost for NAT and the cost of medical management of TTI-related complications by the product of the difference in utility value of a TTI health state with time and Gross National Income(GNI) per capita. Out of the 48,762 samples tested by NAT, 43 samples were discriminated NAT yield all of which were reactive for Hepatitis B (NAT yield of 1:1134). There was no HCV and HIV NAT yield despite HCV being the most prevalent TTI in this population. The cost of this intervention was INR 5,85,14,400. The number of lifetime QALY saved was 1.38 years. The cost of medical management is INR 82,19,114. Therefore the ICER for intervention is INR 3,64,45,860 per QALY saved which is 274 times the GNI per capita of India. The provision of IDNAT-tested blood for thalassemia patients in Rajasthan state was not found to be cost-effective. Measures to bring down the cost or alternative options to increase blood safety should be explored.

A Review of Environmental Vulnerabilities Related to Nepal’s Graduation Process from Least Developed to a Developing Country Status

Nepal has long aspired to graduate from the Least Development Country (LDC) to Developing Country category as defined by the United Nations system. Nepal had met two of the three graduating criteria and could have technically graduated from the LDC status in 2015. However, based on the Nepal government’s request to defer the review, the new 2021 assessment by the United Nations Committee for Development Policy (CDP) recommended that the country should graduate from the LDC status by 2026. The graduation requires not only meeting pre-defined development-related thresholds, but also maintaining sustained improvements in at least two consecutive assessments in two of three areas: gross national income (GNI) per capita, human assets index (HAI), and economic and environmental vulnerability index (EnVI). Nepal’s economy is dependent on several environment-related factors such as agriculture, tourism, hydro-power, and natural resources. This economic development is also solidly tied to the environmental well-being of the country. The authors agree with the Nepal government’s desire to graduate from the LDC status. In this paper, we review the graduation process, assess indicators of the Environmental Vulnerability (EnVI), review the current situation with respect to environmental vulnerability, and point out where it needs to develop appropriate goals, policies, and programs to help the country graduate and join the ranks of developing countries.

한국의 인플레이션 결정요인에 대한 실증 분석

Purpose - This study examines the determinants of inflation in Korea, which includes the validity for the evidence of agflation. Design/Methodology/Approach - This study used monthly data from January 2003 to September 2021, which included the consumer price index (CPI) equation, food price index equation, and CPI inflation transmission equation. The econometric procedures were utilized by ordinary least square (OLS), instrumental variable (IV), three stage least square (3SLS) for time series data, and adopted by vector autoregression (VAR), and vector error correction model (VECM) for multivariate analysis Findings - First, the increase in real gross national income (GNI), oil prices, and food related CPI contributed to the increase in overall CPI. Second, the increase in meat and dairy-related CPI denoted the increase in the agri-food related CPI. Finally, the entire inflation had bi-directional Granger causality with agri-food and oil related inflation, and non-agri-food and non-oil related inflation. Also, the impact of agri-food and oil related inflation was relatively short, but it greatly influenced the entire inflation, and the impact of non-agri-food and non-oil related inflation influenced the entire inflation for a long period. Research Implications - Policy makers consider that almost all grains depend on imports, except for rice; policies related to price level management should be prepared for the impact of food prices rising, and furthermore, international cooperation and coordination should be carried out at the same time.