Gross Anatomy Research Articles

Determination of sexual maturity of Indonesian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis couro) based on straight carapace length

Predicting the turtle's reproductive status and sexual maturity is necessary for ex-situ breeding and conservation program. The histology of the seminiferous tubules of the Indonesian box turtle (Cuora amboinensis couro) at various ages has not been studied much. This study aims to develop equations to predict the sexual maturity of Indonesian box turtles based on straight carapace length (SCL). Six turtles with SCL sizes 10-21 cm were sacrificed and their testes were taken for morphometric measurements and histological preparations for Hematoxylin Eosin staining. Pearson’s correlation of SCL with testicular maturity parameters was analyzed, followed by Anova Regression. The results showed that there were differences in the morphometry and topographic anatomy of the Indonesian box turtle testes between SCL below 15 cm and above 15 cm. Six turtles with SCL size of 10-21 cm were sacrificed and their testes were taken for morphometric measurements and histological preparations for Hematoxylin Eosin staining. Pearson's correlation of SCL with testicular maturity parameters was analyzed, followed by Regression Anova. The results showed that there were differences in the morphometry and topographic anatomy of the Indonesian box turtle testes between SCL below 15 cm and above 15 cm.

Morphometric Analysis of Achilles Tendon Structure and Its Significance: A Cadaveric Study.

Achilles tendon is crucial for gait, and chronic Achilles tendinopathy can have a substantial impact on an individual's work andactive involvement in physical or sportsactivity, and overall quality of life. This research was to determine the macroscopic and microscopic anatomy of Achilles tendons in cadavers. This experimental study was conducted in the Department of Anatomy, Saveetha Medical College, Thandalam, from March to August 2022. A total of 60 formalin-perfused cadavers (38 males and 22 females) were dissected to study their morphometry (length, width, thickness) and histology. The data wastabulatedin MS exceland analyzed statistically usingunpaired 't-testand one-way ANOVAin SPSS Software 17.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY). The mean length of the Achilles tendon was significantly higher in males than in females and similarly, the length on the right side was significantly higher than on the left side(p<0.005). The width and circumference were statistically higher in females than, males whereas, the histological features were similar in both males and females. The better understanding of Achilles tendon morphometry in cadavers always aids in the diagnosis and surgical repair of tendinopathy, rupture, and degenerative change. The knowledge will be helpful for the surgeons during the repair and reconstruction of the injured tendon.

Diagnosis and treatment of Schwannoma of the parapharyngeal space on the example of a 14-year-old male patient

The parapharyngeal space is located on the side of the pharynx wall. It is an inverted pyramid-shaped anatomical area filled with adipose and connective tissue. Schwannoma (neurinoma) is a benign tumour that originates from the Schwann cells that form the myelin sheaths of nerves. This neoplasm in the parapharyngeal space usually arises from the vagus nerve and the sympathetic trunk. Parapharyngeal space tumours are often a complicated diagnostic and therapeutic problem. A 14-year-old patient was admitted to the hospital because of a feeling of discomfort in the throat due to a nodular lesion on the right side. The lesion was removed through transoral approach. The patient remains under laryngological and oncological care. In follow-up examinations 6 months and 1 year after surgery, no features of recurrence were revealed. Due to their rare occurrence, non-specific symptoms, and anatomical topography, the diagnostic and therapeutic process of parapharyngeal space tumours is very difficult.

Топографическая анатомия плечевого сплетения и возможности эндоскопического доступа (кадаверное исследование)

Relevance The brachial plexus is a complex anatomical structure the passes through three narrow anatomical spaces including the interscalene space, the space between the first rib and the clavicle (thoracic aperture), the space between the anterior chest wall and the pectoralis minor muscle. Compression of the brachial plexus and the vascular band can occur at the sites. Endoscopic approach to the brachial plexus is a promising surgical trend to allow neurolysis and decompression of the plexus with minimal trauma and blood loss and a good cosmetic result. The purpose was to explore topographic anatomy of the brachial plexus and surrounding structures and determine the possibility of endoscopic approach to the brachial plexus. Material and methods The shoulder and neck were dissected in 5 fresh cadavers. The study was performed at Trauma and Orthopaedics department of the Russian Peoples Friendship University and Department of pathological anatomy at the Buyanov’s Moscow State City Hospital between 2021 and 2022. Results The pectoralis minor muscle was detached from the coracoid process to endoscopically approach to the subclavian part of plexus. The lateral aspect of the subclavian muscle was detached from the clavicle to endoscopically approach to the thoracic aperture. Portals were produced at the supraclavicular fossa to endoscopically approach to the supraclavicular part of the plexus in the interscalene space considering the topographic anatomy of the jugularis external vein and accessory veins. The mean distance from the coracoid tip to the penetration point of the musculo-cutaneous nerve to the conjoint tendon was 3 cm. The mean distance between the anterior chest wall and the clavicle (width of thoracic aperture) was 1.86 cm. The mean distance between the sternal end of the clavicle to the point of passage of the subclavian artery under the clavicle was 5.7 cm. The mean width of the interscalene space was 1.4 cm. Discussion Aspects of topographic anatomy of the brachial plexus were examined in cadaveric studies of Sidorovich R.R. (2011), Chembrovich V.V. (2019), Anokhina Z.A. (2021), but endoscopic approach to the brachial plexus and possibility with endoscopic surgery were not discussed in the studies. Foreign cadaveric studies of Akaslan I. (2021), Koyyalamudi V. (2021), Costabeber I. (2010), Akboru (2010) were performed to examine topographic anatomy of the brachial plexus. The only study reporting the possibility of endoscopic approach to the brachial plexus and endoscopic anatomy was performed by Lafosse T. (2015). Our cadaveric series reported the possibility of endoscopic approach to the brachial plexus at the three levels for the first time in Russian literature. Conclusion Topographic anatomy of the supraclavicular and infraclavicular portions of the brachial plexus was examined in our series. The study showed the possibility of endoscopic approach to the brachial plexus at the interscalene space, thoracic aperture and subclavian area.

Computed tomography and anatomy of the abdominal structures in the giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla).

The giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) is the largest of the Neotropical vermilinguans. This animal is the second mammal most frequently run over on the roads of Cerrado biome, Brazil. Therefore, it is pivotal to know the anatomy of this species to contribute to the clinical care of these animals. Thus, the aim of this study was to identify the anatomical structures in the abdominal region of the giant anteater using computed tomography (CT). For this, the tomographic analysis was performed in sequential order in the craniocaudal direction in five giant anteaters. Moreover, four giant anteater corpses were used for anatomical studies, where two corpses were sectioned in cross sections of approximately 3 cm each, and two animals were dissected to identify the abdominal organs. The association between CT and anatomical study allowed the visualization of anatomical structures found in the abdominal cavity, such as the topographic anatomy facilitates the identification of organs on CT images. The findings of this study demonstrated that CT is a good technique to provide detailed information about the anatomical structures in the abdominal cavity and that this study can be used as CT and anatomical reference for veterinarians who care for wild animals.

Alexander Artemyevich Matchin - Professor, Honored Maxillofacial Surgeon. To the 80th of birthday

It is the 80th anniversary of the birth of the head of the Department of Dentistry and Maxillofacial Surgery of the Orenburg State Medical University, Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor Matchin Alexander Artemievich. Alexander Artemievich was born on January 1, 1942 in the village of Alekseevka, Orenburg Region, in the family of a teacher. After completing his studies at the Faculty of Medicine at the Orenburg State Medical Institute, he was enrolled in the clinical residency of the Department of General Surgery. At the end of his residency, he continued his postgraduate studies at the Department of Hospital Surgery and in 1971 successfully defended his thesis. All further scientific and practical activities of A.A. Matchin - a talented surgeon, scientist, skillful organizer - were associated with the Orenburg State Medical Institute (since 1994 - the Academy, and since 2014 - the University), where he worked as an assistant, and then an assistant professor of the Department of Hospital Surgery in the course of dentistry. After the opening of the Faculty of Dentistry, the course was reorganized into the Department of Dentistry and Maxillofacial Surgery, and Associate Professor A.A. Matchin became the head of this department. As the head of the department, A.A. Matchin organized and supervised the educational process for the study of dentistry and maxillofacial surgery at all faculties of the university, gave the main course of lectures, supervised the training of students and clinical residents of the department. He not only supervised the medical work of the clinic of maxillofacial surgery, but also performed the most complex surgical interventions. Under the scientific advice of the Honored Scientist, member of the RAMS correspondent, Doctor of Medical Sciences Professor V.A. Kozlov in 2007, Alexander Artemievich successfully defended his doctoral dissertation and received the title of professor. For a series of scientific works on the use of new medical technologies in maxillofacial surgery and dentistry, Professor A.A. Matchin was twice (2011, 2017) awarded the title of laureate of the Governor of the Orenburg Region Prize in the field of science and technology. Professor A.A. Matchin wrote three chapters for the textbook "Topographic Anatomy and Operative Surgery," published in 2009 by the GEOTAR-Media publishing house, which was reprinted several times. He is also a co-author of a textbook on operative maxillofacial surgery and dentistry edited by V.A. Kozlov and I.I. Kagan, released in 2014 and with an additional circulation in 2019. The main areas of multifaceted medical and scientific activity of Professor A.A. Matchin are such undoubtedly important problems as restorative surgery of the maxillofacial region, treatment of inflammatory diseases and injuries, issues of oncological dentistry and organization of care for specialized patients. He embodied his knowledge and invaluable practical experience in publications of more than 350 scientific and educational works, seven copyright certificates and patents for inventions, prepared five candidates of medical sciences. For many years, Professor A.A. Matchin headed the Dental Association of the Orenburg Region, was a member of the Council of the Dental Association of Russia. Currently, he is a member of the dissertation council D 208.066.04 at the Orenburg State Medical University, a member of the profile commission for maxillofacial surgery of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation. For merits in the field of health care and many years of conscientious work, by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin No. 824 of May 6, 2000, Professor A.A. Matchin was awarded the honorary title "Honored Doctor of the Russian Federation." By a resolution of the StAR Council of 23.04.19, he was awarded the honorary title "Honored Maxillofacial Surgeon." Among colleagues A.A. Matchin is known not only as a high-class specialist, but also as a person of a big soul and a good heart. Happy anniversary, dear friend and reliable comrade!

Surgical aspects of topographic and anatomical changes in the neck after hemithyroidectomy

Objective. To develop the optimal surgical techniques for repeated interventions on the thyroid gland, taking into account topographic and anatomical changes in the neck after a previous hemithyroidectomy.&#x0D; Materials and methods. The results of repeated surgical treatment of 69 patients (divided into two groups) with various pathologies of the thyroid gland were analyzed. Patients of the main group (39 person) underwent magnetic resonance imaging of the soft tissues of the neck before the surgery. In the comparison group (30 person), reintervention in the volume of thyroidectomy was performed in the classical way without tomography.&#x0D; Results. Based on magnetic resonance imaging of the soft tissues of the neck, the topographic anatomy of its anterior section in patients after hemithyroidectomy was studied. Two types of disposition of organs and structures were revealed: anterior lateral and posterior medial. The first type is characterized by an anterior displacement of the esophagus to the posterior surface of the lateral lobe of the thyroid gland and the neurovascular bundle. In the second type, a tight contact between the thyroid gland and the short muscles of the neck and displacement of the carotid artery and jugular vein posteriorly and medially was detected. Surgical techniques for repeated surgical intervention have been adjusted for each type of disposition.&#x0D; Conclusions. The proposed techniques made it possible to minimize the length of surgical access, the duration of intervention, the severity of pain syndrome, as well as the number of intra- and postoperative complications.

Do cone-beam computed tomography low-dose protocols affect the evaluation of the temporomandibular joint?

There is no established acquisition protocol based on scientific evidence for the acquisition of cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) exams to evaluate the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). To evaluate the influence of acquisition protocols and jaw positioning on the diagnostic accuracy of TMJ condylar morphological alterations (CMA), dimension, position and excursion. Thirty-six TMJs on 18 dry skulls were imaged using a CBCT unit (OP300 Maxio, Instrumentarium, Tuusula, Finland) at two exposure settings (4.5 and 6.3mA), three voxel resolutions (0.085, 0.125 and 0.280 mm), three jaw positions (concentric, anteriorised and posteriorised) and three jaw excursions (normoexcursion, hyperexcursion and hypoexcursion). The macroscopic anatomy examination and high-resolution CBCT images were used as ground truth for CMA. Twenty-five TMJs had at least one CMA with 11 healthy TMJs serving as controls. Three experienced oral and maxillofacial radiologists evaluated the parasagittal images for the presence of CMA, position and excursion and measured dimensions. The area under the ROC curve, sensitivity and specificity were calculated. Weighted Kappa (α=0.05) was used to determine intra- and interexaminer reliability and comparisons between dependent variables analysed by Analysis of Variance at an a prior level of significance of 0.05. The agreement of the evaluation of the position and excursion with the reference standard was high, independent of the protocol (range, 0.75-0.91). Various combinations of acquisition protocols and jaw position did not influence the CMA evaluation. Erosion was overdiagnosed in protocols with larger voxel sizes and the detection of osteophytes greater in images with smaller voxel sizes. The anteroposterior dimension was greater in the open jaw position (p < .05). CBCT protocols using reduced radiation exposure from the CBCT machine evaluated in this study can be used to assess condylar morphology, dimension, position and excursion, without compromising diagnostic performances for these parameters.

At the Interface of Atrocity, Art, and Anatomy: A Review of Eduard Pernkopf’s Atlas of Topographical and Applied Human Anatomy in Surgical Anatomy and Medical Ethics

At the Interface of Atrocity, Art, and Anatomy: A Review of Eduard Pernkopf’s Atlas of Topographical and Applied Human Anatomy in Surgical Anatomy and Medical Ethics

Computer Tomography (CT) Scans as a Diagnostic Tool for Interpretation of S10 Plastinated Slides from Dog Cadaver

Abstract Computed tomography (CT) is a routine method for the diagnosis of pathological structures in the body and has been widely used in veterinary medicine as an advanced diagnostic imagining tool in veterinary clinics. However, interpretation of CT scans requires detailed knowledge of topographical animal anatomy and usually has limited scan resolution due to the ambiguous relationship between signal intensity and tissue composition. The aim of the study was to assess the morphometric similarities between S10 plastinated slides and computer tomography (CT) scans and their usability as compatible paired diagnostic methods. A 3-year-old euthanized dog cadaver was scanned on SHIMADZU SCT/6800TXL scanner immediately post-mortem, then frozen at -80 °C to preserve the correct anatomical position, and plastinated with a standardized procedure. Semi-transparent transversal slices (5 mm) were obtained from the head, thoracic, and lumbar sections of the body. The S10 plastinated slides and CT scans contained fine and small anatomical structures with high similarity. The spatial relationships of all anatomical structures on the serial S10 platinates were in the correct anatomical position. In conclusion, S10 transversal slices showed high similarity with the CT scans and allowed identification of the corresponding morphological structures. The S10 thin plastinated transversal slices could be used for additional interpretation of CT transversal scans at veterinary clinics and as a didactical tool for veterinary students.

Intrahepatic branching of the portal vein in the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) and American mink (Neovison vison)

The study aimed to evaluate the comparative anatomy of the liver and intrahepatic branching of the portal vein of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) and the American mink (Neovison vison). Due to their highly valuable fur, minks have expanded their range to many parts of Europe and become available for many biomedical studies. In this study, ten adult minks and five otters were used. The intrahepatic branching of the portal vein was studied by the combined injection and dissection technique. The macroscopic anatomy of the liver revealed that both species have six-lobed livers, although differences in shape, size and some additional fissures were documented. The portal vein, upon entering the liver, divides into the right and left branches. The branching pattern in otters had an additional branch at this level with a caudate process branch. The right branch of the portal vein ramified in the right lateral lobe and the caudate process in the mink livers, while the right branch in the otter livers only distributed functional blood to the right lateral lobe. The larger left portal branch, with its transverse and umbilical parts, ramified in the left liver portion, along with the quadrate, right medial lobe and papillary process.

Beyond Total Mesorectal Excision: Compartment-based Anatomy of the Pelvis Revisited for Exenterative Pelvic Surgery.

Magnetic resonance imaging-based subdivision of the pelvis into 7 compartments has been proposed for pelvic exenteration. The aim of the present anatomical study was to describe the topographic anatomy of these compartments and define relevant landmarks and surgical dissection planes. Pelvic anatomy as it relates to exenterative surgery is complex. Demonstration of the topographic peculiarities of the pelvis based on the operative situs is hindered by the inaccessibility of the small pelvis and the tumor bulk itself. Thirteen formalin-fixed pelvic specimens were meticulously dissected according to predefined pelvic compartments. Pelvic exenteration was simulated and illustrated in a stepwise manner. Different access routes were used for optimal demonstration of the regions of interest. All the 7 compartments (peritoneal reflection, anterior above peritoneal reflection, anterior below peritoneal reflection, central, posterior, lateral, inferior) were investigated systematically. The topography of the pelvic fasciae and ligaments; vessels and nerves of the bladder, prostate, uterus, and vagina; the internal iliac artery and vein; the course of the ureter, somatic (obturator nerve, sacral plexus), and autonomic pelvic nerves (inferior hypogastric plexus); pelvic sidewall and floor, ischioanal fossa; and relevant structures for sacrectomy were demonstrated. A systematic approach to pelvic anatomy according to the 7 magnetic resonance imaging-defined compartments clearly revealed crucial anatomical landmarks and key structures facilitating pelvic exenterative surgery. Compartment-based pelvic anatomy proved to be a sound concept for beyond TME surgery and provides a basis for tailored resection procedures.

The “prince of anatomists” Paolo Mascagni and the modernity of his approach to teaching through the anatomical tables of his Anatomia universa. A pioneer and innovator in medical education at the end of the 18th century and the creator of unique anatomica

In the wake of the great anatomists, Paolo Mascagni introduced important innovations into the methods of studying anatomy, as revealed both by his writings and, especially, by his approach to the analysis of anatomical sciences. He devoted his whole life to the study of anatomy, which he considered a mainstay of medical education.&#x0D; Mascagni’s great originality in this field lay in the fact that he designed new, modern tools for the teaching of anatomy – tools that enabled students to gain greater understanding of the human body even in the absence of dissection, which was regarded as indispensable in those days.&#x0D; His two most important results were the first description of the lymphatic system and the clear and precise anatomical tables of the Anatomia Universa. This “modern and evocative anatomical atlas” was the first to present precise, life-size drawings of the human body.&#x0D; The present overview aims to illustrate the modernity of this great scientist, his approach to the study of anatomy, his meticulous attention to topographical anatomy, and the utility of his innovative methods, which were to mark the evolution of medical education for many years.

Academician Viktor Nikolaevich Shevkunenko (1872-1952) (on the 150&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; anniversary of the birth)

The outstanding Russian scientist and teacher in the field of topographic anatomy and operative surgery, one of the initiators of the creation of the Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR and its full member (1944), Honored Scientist of the RSFSR (1935), winner of the Stalin Prize of the first degree (1943), Lieutenant General of the Medical Service (1943), Professor (1912) Viktor Nikolayevich Shevkunenko was born on February 17 (29 new style), 1872 in the county town of Mezen, Arkhangelsk province. In 1895, he graduated from the Imperial Military Medical Academy. From 1912 to 1948, he headed the Department of Operative Surgery and Topographic Anatomy of the Academy. V.N. Shevkunenko is the founder of the doctrine of the type and age variability of human anatomy. As a result of many years of research carried out by the staff of the department, atypical forms of the structure and location of organs and anatomical structures were described in detail, optimal accesses and rational technique were justified when performing surgical interventions on different organs, depending on the typical, sexual and age topographic and anatomical features of patients. V.N. Shevkunenko is the founder of a major Russian school in the field of operative surgery and topographic anatomy: 44 of his students became professors. Academician V.N. Shevkunenko died on July 3, 1952 and was buried at the Theological Cemetery in Leningrad.

Restoration of Bile Outflow in Case of Damage to Hepaticocholedochus and Failure of the Biliary Anastomosis After Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy

The aspect of injuring bile ducts during laparoscopic cholecystectomy is still of current concern. Causes of this complication include insufficient experience of surgical team, poor knowledge of topographic anatomy of subhepatic space, particularly when perivesical inflammatory infiltrate presents, inadequate approach conversion and so on. Most of patients with bile duct injuries undergo repeated operation in the same surgical unit where cholecystectomy was performed. In many cases, this results in a shortening of the segment of the common hepatic duct, which is favorable for restoration. Subsequent reconstructive surgery is usually performed in the worse conditions with a high risk of complications such as failure of sutures, biliary fistula, anastomotic stricture, etc. Most specialists recommend to abstain from primary reconstruction of the biliary tree in hospitals with no proper experience in hepatobiliary surgery and to perform only the external drainage of subhepatic space with subsequent admission of patient to a specialized clinic. We report a case of a young woman who suffered an excision of hepaticocholedochus fragment during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. A primary reconstructive surgery (hepatico-hepaticoanastomosis) was performed in the same clinic and resulted in external fistula of the common hepatic duct. The subsequent operation (hepaticoejunostomy) was performed in a specialized department of the regional clinical hospital. The woman underwent right-sided hypochondrium laparotomy with debridement of postoperative scar tissues. The stumps of common bile duct were mobilized in compact inflammatory infiltrate. The operation ended with distal stump closure and hepaticoenteroanastomosis formation. The patient was discharged with recovery. Six months later, her condition was satisfactory, and she was engaged in occupational activity.

Mnemonics and Metaphorical Videos for Teaching/Learning Musculoskeletal Sonoanatomy.

Musculoskeletal ultrasonography, despite various advantages, is a user-dependent modality. There are several approaches to facilitate the learning process of novice sonographers, for example, on-site courses, textbooks, and online lectures. However, the need for specific (sono)anatomy knowledge can be an obstacle, particularly in the beginning. With the aim of helping novice sonographers understand and retain topographic (sono)anatomy, we have prepared this article that follows a modern approach to teaching known as "entertainment education." It consists of images, schematic drawings, and multimedia videos that provide a simple, visual explanation accompanied by auditory content.

Positional deformation of the parotid gland: Application to minimally invasive procedures.

Anatomical studies of the parotid gland are important for mid- and lower face filler, botulinum toxin, and thread lifting procedures. The purpose of this study was to observe the topographic anatomy of the parotid gland using cadaveric dissections. The superficial lobe of the parotid gland was studied in 30 hemisected heads. Reference lines were made on the lateral aspect of the face. A reference line (the line connecting the mandibular angle to the upper margin of the zygomatic arch, along the posterior border of the ramus) was divided into four sections (P1, P2, P3, and P4). The superior, inferior, anterior, and posterior borders of the parotid gland were measured using the reference lines and sections. Using these measurements, we categorized the superficial lobe of the parotid gland into two types: type Ia, pistol-shaped; Ib, pistol-shaped with an accessory lobe; and type II, oval-shaped. The superior border of the parotid gland started just below the inferior margin of the zygomatic arch. The parotid gland covered the posterior part of the masseter muscle near P1 and P2, but at P3 and below P3, the tail of the parotid gland was located posterior to the ramus and covered the anterior part of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The topographic anatomy of the parotid gland serves as a reliable reference for esthetic procedures in the lower face and neck region.

Macroscopic Anatomy of the Layered Structures of Facial Muscles and Fasciae in the Temporal-Malar-Mandible-Neck Region.

The layered structures of facial muscles and their topographical relationship with facial fasciae are still not fully understood. This study aimed to clarify the layered structures of facial muscles and fasciae in the temporal-malar-mandible-neck region. Thirty-four human cadavers were examined during gross anatomy courses at Niigata University (2017-2020). The face was composed of 3-layered (deep, middle, and superficial) fasciae and 4-layered facial muscles (first superficial, second superficial, third, and fourth muscle layers) according to the attachment of muscles and their topographical relationship with the fasciae. The deep fascia covered the temporal and masseter muscles. The parotid gland and facial nerves were enveloped in the middle fascia. The superficial fascia was continuous with the second superficial muscle layer. The connection between fourth and superficial muscles was at the malar and buccal areas, where the platysma blended with the masseter and the plural muscles blended with the buccinator. Our findings suggest that cooperation between the 4-layered structure of the facial muscles surrounding the apertures of the eyes and mouth and the superficial fascia enables humans to produce complex facial expressions. Furthermore, the spread of inflammation in the face may be owing to the layered facial muscles and fasciae, as these layered structures separate tissues into multiple compartments.

Lymphatic Drainage Conduit and Macro Anatomy of Lymphoid System in Large Intestine of Post Weaned Pigs

Background: The gut mucosa is effectively protected by a local organization of lymphoid tissue. In large intestine, isolated lymphoid follicles give rise to solitary lymphoid nodules and lympho glandular complexes, which are responsible for sampling of gut antigen and production of local immunity. Large intestine requires higher level of mucosal protection as because it is the site where food staff remains for a longer period and also for ascending rectal infection. Present study was undertaken highlighting the lymphatic drainage from large intestine and solitary lymphoid nodules of pig. Methods: 1% solution of methylene blue up to 100 micro litters in the one place of submucosa of large intestine as per the standard technique advocated by Smedley et al. (2014) and then stained nearest mesenteric lymph nodes were recorded and re-injected to map the drainage to the next draining lymph node to trace the lymphatic tract. Result: The study was designed on 12 (Twelve) apparently healthy weaned crossbred piglets of 3 to 4 months age irrespective of sex. Gross study revealed the presence of two different types of solitary lymphatic nodules (SLN) viz. scrotiform and faviform. The scrotiform SLN consisted of central small pore was appreciated in colon and rectum, whereas the faviform SLN although present in colon and rectum was devoid of a central pore. The average solitary lymphoid nodules in the large intestine was 427, of which 403 in colon and 24 in rectum and in terminal part of rectum patches of solitary lymphoid nodules of more than 100 numbers were observed. The different lymph nodes involved in the lymphatic drainage of large intestine of pig were colic caecal, anorectal , lumbar aortic, renal , medial lumbar and lateral lumbar lymph nodes. Again, except the right and left lumbar duct, one minor lymphatic trunk was observed parallel to the rectum, draining the lymph from anorecral lymph node to caudal mesenteric lymph node and then to renal lymph node. The celiac trunk and the jejunal trunk joined and formed a common trunk which was again joined by the colic trunk that finally opened into the caudal aspect of cysternachyli.

The role of enriched environment in neural development and repair.

In addition to genetic information, environmental factors play an important role in the structure and function of nervous system and the occurrence and development of some nervous system diseases. Enriched environment (EE) can not only promote normal neural development through enhancing neuroplasticity but also play a nerve repair role in restoring functional activities during CNS injury by morphological and cellular and molecular adaptations in the brain. Different stages of development after birth respond to the environment to varying degrees. Therefore, we systematically review the pro-developmental and anti-stress value of EE during pregnancy, pre-weaning, and “adolescence” and analyze the difference in the effects of EE and its sub-components, especially with physical exercise. In our exploration of potential mechanisms that promote neurodevelopment, we have found that not all sub-components exert maximum value throughout the developmental phase, such as animals that do not respond to physical activity before weaning, and that EE is not superior to its sub-components in all respects. EE affects the developing and adult brain, resulting in some neuroplastic changes in the microscopic and macroscopic anatomy, finally contributing to enhanced learning and memory capacity. These positive promoting influences are particularly prominent regarding neural repair after neurobiological disorders. Taking cerebral ischemia as an example, we analyzed the molecular mediators of EE promoting repair from various dimensions. We found that EE does not always lead to positive effects on nerve repair, such as infarct size. In view of the classic issues such as standardization and relativity of EE have been thoroughly discussed, we finally focus on analyzing the essentiality of the time window of EE action and clinical translation in order to devote to the future research direction of EE and rapid and reasonable clinical application.