Strategy For Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions Research Articles

Leveraging Greenhouse Gas Emissions Traceability in the Groundnut Supply Chain: Blockchain-Enabled Off-Chain Machine Learning as a Driver of Sustainability

AbstractAs emphasized in multiple United Nations (UN) reports, sustainable agriculture, a key goal in the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), calls for dedicated efforts and innovative solutions. In this study, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the groundnut supply chain from the region of Diourbel & Niakhar, Senegal, to the port of Dakar are investigated. The groundnut supply chain is divided into three steps: cultivation, harvesting, and processing/shipping. This work adheres to UN guidelines, addressing the imperative for sustainable agriculture by applying machine learning-based predictive modeling (MLPMs) utilizing the FAOSTAT and EDGAR databases. Additionally, it provides a novel approach using blockchain-enabled off-chain machine learning through smart contracts built on Hyperledger Fabric to secure GHG emissions storage and machine learning’s predictive analytics from fraud and enhance transparency and data security. This study also develops a decision-making dashboard to provide actionable insights for GHG emissions reduction strategies across the groundnut supply chain.

The carbon footprint of the perioperative transurethral resection of bladder tumour pathway.

To evaluate the carbon footprint of the perioperative transurethral resection of bladder tumour (TURBT) pathway from decision to treat to postoperative discharge, and model potential greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction strategies. This process-based attributional cradle-to-grave life-cycle assessment (LCA) of GHG emissions modelled the perioperative TURBT pathway at a hospital in Southwest England. We included travel, energy and water use, all reusable and consumable items, and laundry and equipment sterilisation. Resource use for 30 patients undergoing surgery was recorded to understand average GHG emissions and the inter-case variability. Sensitivity analysis was performed for manufacturing location, pharmaceutical manufacturing carbon-intensity, and theatre list utilisation. The median (interquartile range) perioperative TURBT carbon footprint was 131.8 (119.8-153.6) kg of carbon dioxide equivalent. Major pathway categories contributing to GHG emissions were surgical equipment (22.2%), travel (18.6%), gas and electricity (13.3%), and anaesthesia/drugs and associated adjuncts (27.0%), primarily due to consumable items and processes. Readily modifiable GHG emissions hotspots included patient travel for preoperative assessment, glove use, catheter use, irrigation delivery and extraction, and mitomycin C disposal. GHG emissions were higher for those admitted as inpatients after surgery. This cradle-to-grave LCA found multiple modifiable GHG emissions hotspots. Key mitigation themes include minimising avoidable patient travel, rationalising equipment use, optimally filling operating theatre lists, and safely avoiding postoperative catheterisation and hospital admission where possible. A crucial next step is to design and deliver an implementation strategy for the environmentally sustainable changes demonstrated herein.

Characterizing Spatial and Temporal Variations in N2O Emissions from Dairy Manure Management in China Based on IPCC Methodology

The emission factor method (Tier 1) recommended by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is commonly used to estimate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from livestock and poultry farms. However, the estimation accuracy may vary due to practical differences in manure management across China. The objectives of this study were to estimate the direct and indirect nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from dairy manure management between 1990 and 2021 in China and characterize its spatial and temporal variations following IPCC guideline Tier 2. The N2O emission factor (EF) of dairy cow manure management systems was determined at the national level and regional level as well. The results showed that the national cumulative N2O emission of manure management from 1990 to 2021 was 113.1million tons of CO2 equivalent, ranging from 90.3 to 135.9 million tons with an uncertainty of ±20.2%. The annual EF was 0.021 kg N2O-N (kg N)−1 for total emissions, while it was 0.014 kg N2O-N (kg N)−1 for direct emissions. The proportions of N2O emissions in North China, Northeast China, East China, Central and Southern China, Southwest China and Northwest China were 32.3%, 18.6%, 11.4%, 5.8%, 6.1% and 25.8%, respectively. In addition, N2O emissions varied among farms in different scales. The respective proportions of total N2O emissions from small-scale and large-scale farms were 64.8% and 35.2% in the past three decades. With the improvement in farm management and milk production efficiency, the N2O emissions per unit mass of milk decreased from 0.77 × 10−3 kg to 0.48 × 10−3 kg in 1990–2021. This study may provide important insights into compiling a GHG emission inventory and developing GHG emission reduction strategies for the dairy farming system in China.

Ecological and Economic Benefits of Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Strategies in Rice Production: A Case Study of the Southern Rice Propagation Base in Hainan Province

Developing tailored emission reduction strategies and estimating their potential is crucial for achieving low-carbon rice production in a specific region, as well as for advancing China’s dual carbon goals in the agricultural sector. By utilizing water-saving and drought-resistant rice (WDR) with enhanced water and nitrogen utilization efficiency, the mitigation strategies were constructed for rice production systems, and their potential for emission reduction was estimated in the southern rice propagation base of Hainan Province. This study revealed that the implementation of a reduction strategy, which involves dry direct seeding and dry cultivation, combined with a 53% reduction in nitrogen fertilizer, can effectively synergize the mitigation of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from rice paddies. Compared with traditional flooded rice cultivation, this integrated approach exhibits an impressive potential for reducing net greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 97% while simultaneously doubling economic benefits. Moreover, when combined with plastic film mulching, the strategy not only sustains rice yields but also achieves a remarkable emission reduction of 92%, leading to a fourfold increase in economic benefits. Our study provides a comprehensive low-carbon sustainable development strategy for rice production in the southern rice propagation base of Hainan Province and offers valuable insights for researching GHG emissions in other regions or crops. These emission reduction pathways and the assessment method could contribute to the realization of low-carbon agriculture.

Spatio-temporal Change in City-level Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Municipal Solid Waste Sector in China During the Last Decade and Its Potential Mitigation

The waste sector is a significant source of greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions and clarifying its emission trends and characteristics is the premise for formulating GHG emission reduction strategies. Using the IPCC inventory model, the GHG emissions from the municipal solid waste(MSW) sector in China during 2010 to 2020 were estimated. The results showed that GHG emissions increased from 42.5 Mt in 2010 to 75.3 Mt in 2019, then decreased to 72.1 Mt in 2020. MSW landfills were the main source of GHG emissions. Further, with the increase in the proportion of waste incineration, the proportion of GHG incineration increased rapidly from 16.5% in 2010 to 60.1% in 2020. In terms of regional distribution, East and South China were the regions with the highest emissions, and Guangdong, Shandong, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang were the provinces with the largest GHG emissions. Implementing MSW classification, changing the MSW disposal modes from landfilling to incineration, improving the LFG collection efficiency of landfills, and using biological functional materials as the cover soil to strengthen the methane oxidation efficiency are the main measures to achieve GHG emission reduction in waste sectors.

Livestock greenhouse gas emission and mitigation potential in China

Livestock is an important source of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) in China. Understanding the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission trends and reduction strategies in livestock is crucial for promoting low-carbon transformation of the livestock sector (LS) and achieving the goal of “carbon peak and carbon neutralization”. First, based on the life cycle assessment and IPCC coefficient methods, we calculated the GHGE of the LS in 31 provinces of China from 2000 to 2020 and identified the temporal and spatial evolution of GHG emission intensity. The LMDI method was then used to analyze the influence of efficiency, structure, economy, and population size on GHGE. Finally, the STIRPAT model was used to simulate the future evolution trend of the LS emissions under the SSPs scenario. The results revealed that the GHGE in the life cycle of livestock production decreased from 535.47 Mt carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) in 2000 to 532.18 Mt CO2e in 2020, and the main source was CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation of livestock. Economic and efficiency factors markedly influenced the changes in GHGE from the LS in China. Further, economic factors contributed >40% to the increase in GHGE in most provinces. Under the SSP1, SSP2, and SSP4 scenarios, livestock production can achieve the carbon peak target in 2030. Under the baseline scenario (SSP2), the GHGE of China's LS in 2030 and 2060 are expected to be 491.48 Mt CO2e and 352.11 Mt CO2e, respectively. The focus of mitigation measures for livestock production in the future is to optimize the production structure of the LS, promote the low-carbon transformation of the energy structure of livestock feeding, and establish an efficient and intensive management model. In addition, we focus on emission reduction in key areas, such as Northeast and Northwest China, while optimizing diet and reducing food waste from the consumer side.

Environmental consequences of a consumer shift from dairy- to soy-based products

Context Climate change and water scarcity are global challenges facing humanity. Animal agriculture generates considerable greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and consumes large volumes of water from rivers, streams and lakes. Reducing consumption of animal agricultural products with a relatively high carbon or water footprint, such as dairy, is often promoted as a mechanism to reduce the environmental impacts of food production. Attributionally-based footprints do not, however, assess the consequences of a change in demand for a product. Aims This study aimed to assess the water and climate change consequences of replacing NSW dairy production, and co-products of dairy production, with plant-based alternatives. Methods Process-based consequential life cycle assessment was used. Key results Water savings associated with the change would be limited and GHG emissions reductions would be ~86% of that as estimated by the carbon footprint of production. When NSW dairy production was replaced with soy-based alternatives and two GHG emissions reduction strategies were implemented across the industry, namely enteric methane inhibitors and flaring methane from effluent ponds, GHG emissions increased by 0.63 Mt carbon dioxide equivalent when dairy production was replaced. Conclusions The environmental benefits associated with replacing NSW dairy production with plant-based alternatives should not be determined by attributionally-based approaches. Implications Policies that aim to reduce the environmental impacts of agricultural production need to consider the market effects of a change in demand for products and not rely on estimated impacts of current production.

Rumen Microbiome Reveals the Differential Response of CO2 and CH4 Emissions of Yaks to Feeding Regimes on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.

Shifts in feeding regimes are important factors affecting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from livestock farming. However, the quantitative values and associated drivers of GHG emissions from yaks (Bos grunniens) following shifts in feeding regimes have yet to be fully described. In this study, we aimed to investigate CH4 and CO2 emissions differences of yaks under different feeding regimes and their potential microbial mechanisms. Using static breathing chamber and Picarro G2508 gas concentration analyzer, we measured the CO2 and CH4 emissions from yaks under traditional grazing (TG) and warm-grazing and cold-indoor feeding (WGCF) regimes. Microbial inventories from the ruminal fluid of the yaks were determined via Illumina 16S rRNA and ITS sequencing. Results showed that implementing the TG regime in yaks decreased their CO2 and CH4 emissions compared to the WGCF regime. The alpha diversity of ruminal archaeal community was higher in the TG regime than in the WGCF regime. The beta diversity showed that significant differences in the rumen microbial composition of the TG regime and the WGCF regime. Changes in the rumen microbiota of the yaks were driven by differences in dietary nutritional parameters. The relative abundances of the phyla Neocallimastigomycota and Euryarchaeota and the functional genera Prevotella, Ruminococcus, Orpinomyces, and Methanobrevibacter were significantly higher in the WGCF regime than in the TG regime. CO2 and CH4 emissions from yaks differed mainly because of the enrichment relationship of functional H2- and CO2-producing microorganisms, hydrogen-consuming microbiota, and hydrogenotrophic methanogenic microbiota. Our results provided a view that it is ecologically important to develop GHG emissions reduction strategies for yaks on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau based on traditional grazing regime.

Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Strategies in the Transportation and Solid Waste Sector in Cilacap Regency

Every year, population growth in Cilacap Regency inevitably results in various impacts in various fields, including transportation and solid waste. The number of motorized vehicles in the Cilacap Regency has increased from 588,283 units in 2017 to 714,533 units in 2020. On the other hand, solid waste generation in Cilacap Regency in 2020 reached 0.22 tons per capita per year. Both activities can potentially reduce the air quality of the Cilacap Regency. One of the causes of the decline in air quality is CO2, CH4, and N2O gases, which can cause global warming. This study aims to inventory and project GHG emission loads, determine mitigation strategies and design regulations related to GHG emission reduction in the transportation and solid waste sector in Cilacap Regency. The method used to inventory GHG emissions in this research is the 2006 IPCC method with Tier 1 and Tier 2 accuracy. Then it is projected for the next ten years with a Business As Usual (BAU) scenario. To determine the selected reduction strategy using SWOT and QSPM analysis. The inventory results and projected GHG emissions in the solid waste sector in 2030 are 109.29 Gg CO2e. 4 GHG emission reduction programs in the solid waste sector could reduce up to 29.49% Gg CO2-e in 2030. Then the BAU scenario GHG emissions in the transportation sector in 2030 reached 21,417 Gg CO2e. The six proposed scenarios were able to produce a percentage of GHG reduction of 7 65% in 2030 or 1,638,409 Tons of CO2e or 1,638 Gg CO2e from 2021-to 2030 with a priority strategy for reducing GHG emissions is increasing pollution buffers by building green open space and non-motorized pathways with a reduced rate of 2%.

Jejak karbon pada tahap operasional agro-eduwisata kota mataram menggunakan pendekatan penilaian daur hidup

Climate change is one of the global issues that require the participation of all stakeholders for handling. In addition, the climate change issue is listed as one of the sustainable development goals (SDGs). The Government of Mataram city, as one of the stakeholders, has committed to involve the climate change consideration into its planned program, including the development of agro-edutourism facility. This study aims to calculate a carbon footprint of agroedutourism facility during the operational stage in order to implement the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission reduction strategy. The method used is a life cycle assessment approach with ReCiPe analysis, and the functional unit is an annual carbon footprint per m2 area of agro-edutourism. The study showed that the total carbon footprint per m2 was 2.88 KgCO2-e per annum with the primary environmental hotspot was fossil fuel utilization in energy source of agro-edutourism facility (Electricity State-own Company) and visitor vehicles. Therefore, some strategies could be applied for reducing the carbon footprint, such as increasing the utilization percentage of renewable energy (solar panel), using energy-saving bulbs, preparing the facilities for zero-emission vehicles, and applying the green building concept or design. Further research is required to assess the energy management concept from the technical feasibility aspect and economic aspect for complimenting this study.

Analysis of Agricultural Biomass Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Reduction Evidence from China.

China is a large agricultural country, where agricultural activities and rural life cause a large amount of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In the process of crop growth, production, and processing, a large number of crop straws and agricultural wasted products are produced, which become one of the important sources of biomass resources. However, few detailed studies focused on the potential of China's agricultural biomass energy conversion and carbon emission reduction, and fewer studies proposed GHG emission reduction strategies from the perspective of making full use of China's agricultural waste resources. In this study, the quantity calculation index of agricultural biomass energy was given, and the GHG emission reduction potential calculation index of agricultural biomass energy was constructed, with which the amount of GHG emissions caused by agricultural waste use in China was measured and the potential of GHG emission reduction caused by agricultural waste use would be easily speculated. Based on the statistical data of China, the quantity and GHG emission reduction potential of agricultural biomass resources in China in the recent 10 years (2009∼2018) were clarified. According to the research, the amount of agricultural waste equivalent to standard coal in China from 2009 to 2018 reached 280,0711 million tons. If all these resources were used to replace coal, a total of 4,474,483 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions could be saved. Assuming that these wastes are anaerobic, carbonized, or fully burned as fuel, CH4 emissions could be reduced by up to 12.024 million tons and N2O emissions by up to 185,000 tons. It can be seen that the effective utilization of agricultural biomass resources can replace coal, reduce backwardness such as land burning, and then reduce CO2, CH4, N2O, and other greenhouse gas emissions, and promote the realization of carbon peak and carbon neutrality.

Energy storage onboard zero-emission two-wheelers: Challenges and technical solutions

The two-wheelers powered by battery, hydrogen fuel cell, or a combination of these two power sources are the potential candidates for the greenhouse gas emission reduction strategy in the future although they have been running into difficulties relating to the onboard energy storage technology. Therefore, the main aim of this review paper is to present the existing challenges and technical solutions to the energy storage of two-wheelers. Indeed, exchanging batteries and swapping metal hydrides hydrogen storage canisters were found to be the appropriate solutions, in which fuel cell and the metal hydride canister could constitute a cogeneration system that the heat needed for hydrogen desorption from the metal hydride canister could be recycled from the waste heat of fuel cell stacks or stored in phase change material during the uptake process. Furthermore, powertrain layouts of the fuel cell two-wheelers and the fuel cell-battery hybrid two-wheelers based on the traditional two-wheeler platforms were also suggested in this paper. More importantly, a novel concept associated with the “zero-emission two-wheeler-building” polygeneration system was also suggested to improve the global energy conversion efficiency. Finally, the energy system of two-wheelers powered by battery, fuel cell, and fuel cell-battery hybrid was thoroughly analyzed and compared.

Identifying the main crops and key factors determining the carbon footprint of crop production in China, 2001–2018

Agriculture affects climate change and contributes directly and indirectly to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, no reports have fully quantified the GHG emissions from different crop systems in China. In this study, the carbon emission and carbon sequestration inventories and the carbon footprint (CF) of 16 major crop systems in China from 2001 to 2018 were analyzed with a cradle-to-farm gate life cycle analysis approach for the first time. The results showed that the largest farm CF and product CF were vegetables (11.9 t CO2 eq ha−1) and tea (4.6 t CO2 eq t−1), respectively. From the perspective of crop emissions and processes, the main crop systems influencing the national total net carbon emissions (NTCE) from crop production are rice, maize, wheat, fruits and vegetables, accounting for 87.3–90.4%; the key emission processes for NTCE are fertilization and irrigation, accounting for 73.7–76.8%. The NTCE has increased by 410.4 Mt CO2 eq from 2001 to 2018, of which maize, fruits and vegetables were the main crops that explained 99.0%, while fertilization and irrigation were the key factors and explained 91.9% of these increases. Scenario analysis indicated that increasing the straw return rate and partially replacing chemical fertilizers with manure have a minimal impact on NTCE. In contrast, reducing the loss of reactive nitrogen is the most effective single strategy to alleviate agricultural GHG emissions in the future. Our results will provide a fresh perspective for the development of more effective GHG emission reduction strategies for agricultural green development.

Uncovering GHG emission characteristics of industrial parks in Central China via emission inventory and cluster analysis

Abstract Industrial parks (IPs) contribute greatly to China's economic development while emitting lots of greenhouse gas (GHG). Establishing GHG emission inventories for IPs is essential to generate low-carbon strategies. Taking 11 IPs in Central China as objects, this study established GHG inventories including direct and indirect emissions, exploring the characteristics from the point of view of energy types and industrial sectors. We then adopted cluster analysis to classify these IPs into “3Hs”, “3Ls” and “Mixed” parks, and subsequently chose representative IPs for case study. The results show that total CO2 emissions of the parks in 2017 were 14.47 Mt. Coal combustion from energy types and energy-intensive industries from industrial sectors were the dominant emission sources, both accounting for 80% of the total emission in 11 IPs. Reducing power export and using renewable energy are crucial to mitigate GHG emission in the IPs including large-scale thermal power plants. Cluster analysis reveals that “3Hs” and “Mixed” parks should be put in a high priority in GHG mitigation, focusing on energy-intensive industries transformation and energy structure adjustment. This study is helpful to understand GHG emission characteristics of IPs in Central China and promotes the proposal and implementation of GHG emission reduction strategies in IPs.

Marginal abatement cost of electricity generation from renewable energy in Thailand

Electricity is very important for daily living and plays a major role in national development in Thailand with around 20.5% proportion in national final energy consumption, mainly from burning fossil fuels which have a direct effect to the greenhouse gas emission level of the country. Hence, the country has launched the Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) Roadmap which covering on the 2021 to 2030 period and focused mainly on the energy, especially on power generation, and transport sector mitigation activities. This study has focused on the estimation of the marginal abatement cost (MAC) of electricity generation from renewable energy which consists of (i) natural type (solar energy, wind power, and hydro energy), and (ii) bioenergy type (biomass, biogas, and waste). As widely known, MAC is one of the most important tools for policy decision in prioritization in greenhouse gas emission reduction strategy which represents the importance and necessity of electricity production from each renewable energy type that affects the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the country. We found that the marginal abatement cost (MAC), from various size and type, of natural type from -4,780.80 to 5,248.32 THB/tCO2eq and bioenergy type are from -4,913.28 to 134.29 THB/tCO2eq. The factors that affect to MAC of each renewable energy type are mixed results but the major factors are plant factor, investment cost, location, and size (in terms of economy of scale), respectively.

Regional Heterogeneity in the Emissions Benefits of Electrified and Lightweighted Light-Duty Vehicles.

Electrification and lightweighting technologies are important components of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction strategies for light-duty vehicles. Assessments of GHG emissions from light-duty vehicles should take a cradle-to-grave life cycle perspective and capture important regional effects. We report the first regionally explicit (county-level) life cycle assessment of the use of lightweighting and electrification for light-duty vehicles in the U.S. Regional differences in climate, electric grid burdens, and driving patterns compound to produce significant regional heterogeneity in the GHG benefits of electrification. We show that lightweighting further accentuates these regional differences. In fact, for the midsized cars considered in our analysis, model results suggest that aluminum lightweight vehicles with a combustion engine would have similar emissions to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) in about 25% of the counties in the US and lower than battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in 20% of counties. The results highlight the need for a portfolio of fuel efficient offerings to recognize the heterogeneity of regional climate, electric grid burdens, and driving patterns.

Equitable Cost-Benefit Analysis of Climate Change

The literature of welfare-maximising greenhouse gas emission reduction strategies pays remarkably little attention to equity. This paper introduces three ways to consider efficiency and equity simultaneously. The first method, inspired by Kant and Rawls, maximises net present welfare, without international co-operation, as if all regions share the fate of the region affected worst by climate change. Optimal emission abatement varies greatly depending on the spatial and temporal resolution, that is, the grid at which 'maximum impact' is defined. The second method is inspired by Varian's no-envy. Emissions are reduced so as to equalise total costs and benefits of climate change over the world and over time. Emission reductions are substantial. This method approximately preserves the inequities that would occur in a world without climate change. The third method uses non-linear aggregations of welfare (the utilitarian default is linear) in a co-operative setting. This method cannot distinguish between sources of inequity. The higher the aversion to inequity, the higher optimal greenhouse gas emission reduction.

Application of software to study the impact of transportation sectors' greenhouse gas emissions reduction on climate change

The study of environmental pollution has been significantly aided through computerized tools and models over the last several decades. There are enormous social and economic benefits of using software for studying the climatic impact of the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This paper presents an approach to examine the climatic impact of emissions from the transportation sector by identifying available software (namely, MOVES, GREET, and mixed‐use trip generation model) for projecting future GHG emission levels. This process is followed by the quantification of GHG emissions with variations in the temperature considering that temperature change at any given geographical region directly influences the projections of climate change. This study presents the application of relevant software in examining the various GHG emission reduction strategies, which can play an important role in understanding possible variations in the projected temperature variations for the transportation sector within a geographical region. © 2016 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Environ Prog, 35: 1559–1565, 2016

A Rough Set Based Assessment of the Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions: A Tanzanian Shipping Sector Perspective

The Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions due to transport operations have drastically increased in recent years. The sea transport in particular contributes 2.7 to 3 percent of CO2, a major component of GHG emissions globally. Numerous measures have been undertaken locally and internationally to alleviate the sea transport share of Greenhouse Gases. However, most of these measures will be fruitful if ship investors (e.g., ship owners and operators) would fully employ the GHG emission reduction strategies. Due to the scarcity of the statistical data in this respect, this study therefore presents a rough set synthetic assessment (RSSA) model to GHG emission abatement strategies in the Tanzanian shipping sector. The results of the assessment reveal that the Tanzanian shipping companies engaged in Cabotage trade are aware of the abatement strategies and moderately apply them.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction and Energy Efficiency Strategies for New York City’s Wastewater Treatment Facilities to Meet Deep Carbon Reduction Goals

Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reduction and Energy Efficiency Strategies for New York City’s Wastewater Treatment Facilities to Meet Deep Carbon Reduction Goals