Green Synthesis Route Research Articles

Cobalt oxide-porous carbon composite derived from CO2 for the enhanced performance of lithium-ion battery

As the necessity of eco-friendly energy storage devices grows, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have emerged as a promising alternative. While metal oxides, due to their high theoretical capacity, have been investigated as anode materials for LIBs, shortcomings such as poor electrical conductivity and segregation of metal oxide are obstacles in actual practice. To solve these problems, this study synthesized cobalt oxide/porous carbon (Co/CPC) composites through a facile one-step thermal process under gaseous carbon dioxide (CO2) atmosphere. As-prepared composites showed cobalt oxide nanoparticles well-integrated with the CO2-derived porous carbon (CPC) and exhibited superior electrochemical performance via a synergistic effect of the cobalt oxide and the CPC. The composites demonstrated a reversible capacity of 1179 mA h·g−1 at a current density of 1000 mA·g−1 and stably retained this capacity over 300 cycles. Therefore, Co/CPC composites prepared from CO2 can be economical and eco-friendly anode materials due to their green synthesis route and outstanding electrochemical performance.

Adsorptive behavior of zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 towards anionic dye in aqueous media: Combined experimental and molecular docking study

In the present work, zeolitic imidazole framework-8 (ZIF-8), a special class of metal organic framework (MOF) was prepared under a cleaner and greener synthesis route. ZIF-8 was characterized by using powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA) and UV–Visible diffused reflectance spectroscopy (UV-DRS). The material was used to remove reactive blue-4 (RB4) from aqueous media via physical adsorption process. The adsorption kinetics, isotherms, effects of dose and ionic strengths were studied. The results of the above studies concluded that pseudo-second-order kinetics model and Freundlich isotherm fitted well with our experimental adsorption data. Thermodynamics parameters of adsorption like enthalpy, entropy and free energy were evaluated. The sorption process has taken place spontaneously and it was exothermic in nature. The adsorption of RB4 was discussed focusing on electrostatic attractions, pore-filling effects, π–π interactions and hydrogen bonding interactions. The results from this study indicated the ability of ZIF-8 to adsorb dye efficiently and its potential applications in wastewater treatment.

Recent Advances of Ternary Layered Cu2MX4 (M = Mo, W; X = S, Se) Nanomaterials for Photocatalysis

Photocatalytic technologies, based on efficient light absorption and conversion, have emerged as a viable solution to overcome the problems related to energy and the environment. Development of new cost‐effective materials coupled with the green synthesis routes in order to replace the noble metal‐based catalysts is critical to overcoming this challenge. In this review, a brief summary of the recent progress in ternary layered Cu2MX4 (M = Mo, W; X = S, Se) nanomaterials and their photocatalytic performance is presented. First, the structural configurations with different phases and crystallinity are described, as well as various experimental synthesis methods of Cu2MX4 nanomaterials. Thereafter, the effect of morphology modulation, facet selection, and multicomponent hybridization on the catalytic activity of Cu2MX4 is elucidated. In addition, a proposal for highly‐efficient Cu2MX4 photocatalysts is presented via rational designing strategies for realizing their specific applications in the fields of photodegradating organic pollutants, water splitting, and other photocatalytic reactions. Finally, the existing research challenges related to ternary Cu2MX4 layers along with future prospects are discussed in detail.

Asymmetric supercapacitor device performance based on microwave synthesis of N-doped graphene/nickel sulfide nanocomposite

Nickel sulfide (NiS) and Nitrogen-doped Graphene/NiS nanocomposite (NG/NiS) are prepared via green microwave synthesis route as electrode materials for supercapacitors. As-prepared materials are examined using XRD, Raman, XPS, SEM, EDX and elemental mapping characterization techniques to obtain the information regarding their structure, complex formation, morphology and elemental presence. The electrochemical investigations like CV, GCD and impedance analysis suggest that NG/NiS is an excellent electrode material with a specific capacitance of 1467.8 F g−1 at 1 A g−1. In asymmetric configuration of NG//NG/NiS, with polyurethane foam as the separator soaked with 6 M KOH and graphite sheet as the current collector, the composite produces the energy density of 66.6 Wh kg−1 at a power density of 405.83 W kg−1 with a cyclic stability of 86.6% for 5000 cycles. The high electrochemical performance is because N-doped graphene houses NiS nanoflake clusters, and together they demonstrate an impressive performance for supercapacitors.

Calcium silicate layer on titanium fabricated by electrospray deposition

Titanium and its alloys have been used as implant materials. Non-ideal osseointegration of the implant materials has facilitated the development of the bioactive coatings on the implant surfaces. In this work, the bioactive calcium silicate (CaSi) powder prepared in a green synthesis route was used to cover the surface of Ti implants by a facile electrospray deposition method. Post annealing in air was also applied to form the oxidation layer on the Ti surface with the aim of increasing the bond strength between the CaSi coating layer and Ti substrate. For the characterization of the coatings several analytical methods such as X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, secondary neutral mass spectrometry, and Raman-spectroscopy were used, in addition to the measurement of bond strength and corrosion resistance. The results indicated a uniform CaSi layer with a thickness of about 1 μm deposited on the Ti substrate. Annealing in the range of 700–900 °C in air resulted in the formation of rutile phase of TiO2; more importantly, annealing at 800 °C did not significantly affect the composition of the CaSi layer consisting of β-Ca2SiO4. The bond strength between the coating layer and Ti substrate can be remarkably enhanced at an annealing temperature of 700 or 800 °C compared with the as-prepared coating without annealing. The annealed coatings had a better corrosion resistance than the as-prepared coating. It is concluded that the electrospray method associated with the post-annealing can be successfully used for the deposition of a CaSi layer with a defined structure and composition on titanium implants.

Green Route Synthesis and Characterization of Cuprous Oxide (Cu2O): Visible light Irradiation photocatalytic activity of MB Dye

Abstract A simple preparation, less time-consuming and cost-effective of Cu2O nanoparticles is a p-type of semiconducting material and the band gap is (2.15 eV), the various particular shapes were prepared by different methods, an eco-friendly, gentle and low cost synthetic method natural green method has been developed to cuprous oxide Nanoparticles (Cu2O NPs) and Cu2O NPs synthesized by using benign natural green root such as guava fruit juice and Fehling’s solution. The fabrication of octahedral shape of Cu2O NPs was described by a natural green and simple chemical precipitation method in this study. The structural and morphology of the Cu2O nanoparticles was studied using X-ray Diffraction analysis (XRD), Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy image (FE-SEM), Diffused Reflectance Ultraviolet-Visible spectroscopy (DRS UV-Vis) the functional group conformation of Cu2O nanoparticles were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The morphology of Cu2O nanoparticles looks like octahedral shape. The XRD revealed the structure of crystalline of the Cu2O nanoparticles. The Cu2Ophotocatalysis has been demonstrated to be an efficient photocatalyst towards methylene blue dye solutions.

Facile green synthesis of organosilica nanoparticles by a generic “salt route”

Colloidal silica has wide applications and the global demand of specialty silica is continually increasing. Therefore, it is significant to develop a synthetic method that is simple, versatile, energy-saving, ecologically benign, and easily scalable. Biomimetic synthesis of colloidal silica represents a promising strategy; however, it often requires the synthesis or extraction of specialized macromolecules. In this paper, we present a novel aqueous, one-pot, and green route for synthesis of organosilica nanoparticles. The reaction systems contain only water, an organosilane precursor, a salt, and a commonly used surfactant or amphiphilic polymer. The reaction was performed at ambient conditions without adding any additional solvent, energy, and harsh chemicals. The key findings include the novel identification of 5 salts (i.e. nitrite, fluoride, dibasic phosphate, acetate, and sulfite) that can catalyze organosilica condensation and the resulting formation of nano-colloids. Moreover, the presence of amphiphilic molecules is essential for salt catalysis at low salt concentrations and at nearly neutral pH. Solid-state NMR and in-situ ATR-FTIR studies confirmed that organosilica condensation is highly efficient under the mild reaction condition. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that “soft” interaction between salts and surfactants (or polymers) can be utilized to construct an effective platform for synthesis of “hard” organosilica particles. The proposed method is generic and applicable to a wide range of commonly used surfactants (viz. non-ionic, anionic, cationic) and amphiphilic polymers, as well as to organosilanes with various hydrophobic functional groups (e.g. mercaptopropyl, vinyl, and methyl).

Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles Using Different Plant Materials and Their Antibacterial Activity

The green route of metal nanoparticles synthesis has received significant attention in recent years due to it's cost-effective, non-toxic and eco-friendly nature in comparison to other physical and chemical methods. This study reports on the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) from bio-reduction of 1mM aqueous silver nitrate (AgNO3) by extracts prepared from three different plants namely, Brassica oleracea L. var. italica Plenck (Broccoli), Capsicum annuum L. (Chili) and Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Carrot grass). The synthesized Ag-NPs were characterized using UV- visible spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Ag-NPs synthesized showed the surface plasmon resonance with the appearance of absorption peaks around the range of 410-430 nm. The possible biomolecules involved in the reduction and the stabilization of synthesized Ag-NPs were found to be alcoholic, phenolic, amine and carbonyl groups. SEM study revealed that Ag-NPs were spherical in shape with varied size about 10-40 nm. Besides, the analysis of antioxidant and antibacterial activities of Ag-NPs was carried out. The Ag-NPs synthesized using B. oleracea extract showed the higher antioxidant activity than Ag-NPs synthesized from both C. annuum & P. hysterophorus extracts. Ag-NPs exhibited good antibacterial activity against both Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) and Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria. The higher antibacterial activity was shown by Ag-NPs synthesized from P. hysterophorus extract in comparison to Ag-NPs synthesized from both C. annuum & B. oleracea extracts. Hence, it can be concluded that Ag-NPs synthesized following the green route could be the source for potential antioxidant and antibacterial agents.
 Int. J. Appl. Sci. Biotechnol. Vol 6(4): 294-301

Eco-friendly synthesis of Fe3O4 nanoparticles: Evaluation of their catalytic activity in methylene blue degradation by kinetic adsorption models

Abstract In this work the green synthesis of Fe3O4 nanoparticles by cynara cardunculus leaf extract is presented. This green synthesis route offers a novel and eco-friendly alternative to obtaining of iron oxides nanoparticles. Functional nanoparticles with potential catalytic applications, particularly for water remediation containing organic dyes were synthetized. The structural characterization of the Fe3O4 nanoparticles were carried out by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction, techniques. Calculation to obtaining the crystallite size by Williamson –Hall method were performed. Additionally, Raman spectroscopy support the Fe3O4 characterization. Posteriorly, the Fe3O4 nanoparticles were evaluated on the methylene blue degradation. Kinetic adsorption models were employed to establish the behavior during the methylene blue degradation process. Pseudo first order, Pseudo second order, Intraparticle diffusion and Elovich Models were calculated based on the experimental data obtained. Calculations as the correlation factor indicates the best linear fit between the theoretical models and the experimental data obtained during the blue methylene degradation.

A novel environmentally friendly method in solid phase for in situ synthesis of chitosan-gold bionanocomposites with catalytic applications

A novel method to obtain catalytic bio-nanocomposites based on chitosan containing different amounts of gold nanoparticles generated in situ is reported. The formation of gold nanoparticles takes place in solid phase assisted by a heating induced process. This method only involves the use of chitosan biopolymer and a gold salt precursor. Unlike other methods the addition of external reducing and stabilizing agents to generate gold nanoparticles, is not needed because these roles are played by chitosan. Therefore, the striking properties of chitosan (e.g., high functionality, biodegradability and biocompatibility) are profited, in order to design a facile and green route of synthesis. Additionally, the described method allows to vary the amount and size of the gold nanoparticles contained in the bio-nanocomposite by using different gold ion compositions and temperatures of heating process. Finally, the bio-nanocomposite performance as heterogeneous catalyst on the reduction of p-nitrophenol (4-NP) to p-aminophenol (4-AP) as a model system was assessed. The results showed a significant catalytic effect that increases as the content of gold nanoparticles in the bio-nanocomposite also increases.

Kinetic Modeling of Catalytic Olefin Cracking and Methanol-to-Olefins (MTO) over Zeolites: A Review

The increasing demand for lower olefins requires new production routes besides steam cracking and fluid catalytic cracking (FCC). Furthermore, less energy consumption, more flexibility in feed and a higher influence on the product distribution are necessary. In this context, catalytic olefin cracking and methanol-to-olefins (MTO) gain in importance. Here, the undesired higher olefins can be catalytically converted and, for methanol, the possibility of a green synthesis route exists. Kinetic modeling of these processes is a helpful tool in understanding the reactivity and finding optimum operating points; however, it is also challenging because reaction networks for hydrocarbon interconversion are rather complex. This review analyzes different deterministic kinetic models published in the literature since 2000. After a presentation of the underlying chemistry and thermodynamics, the models are compared in terms of catalysts, reaction setups and operating conditions. Furthermore, the modeling methodology is shown; both lumped and microkinetic approaches can be found. Despite ZSM-5 being the most widely used catalyst for these processes, other catalysts such as SAPO-34, SAPO-18 and ZSM-23 are also discussed here. Finally, some general as well as reaction-specific recommendations for future work on modeling of complex reaction networks are given.

Preparation of cerium oxide nanoparticles in Salvia Macrosiphon Boiss seeds extract and investigation of their photo-catalytic activities

Cerium oxide nanoparticles (CNPs) with desired particle size and spherical morphology were prepared from cerium nitrate in bio media of Salvia macrosiphon Boiss seeds extract, as a green synthesis route. Then they were characterized by XRD, UV–Vis and FTIR spectroscopies, FESEM and TGA. Band gap energy of the prepared powders was also determined which was found in the range of 2.5–3.5 eV. Determination of DLS and zeta potential were showed that CNPs had the small size and unique colloidal stability, respectively. Then the photo-catalytic activity of them was investigated by degradation of Rhodamine B (RhB) dye as a model of waste water pollutants, under UV-irradiation and optimum conditions were evaluated. Results showed that decreasing the particle size increased the rate of photo-catalytic reaction remarkably but ascending the band gap energy, in contrast. The photo-catalytic mechanism was also studied by using different scavengers.

A Simple and One-pot Synthesis of Tetrahydrobenzo[b]pyrans and Spirooxindoles Catalyzed by H-Fe3O4@DA-SO3H as an Efficient, Light and Reusable Nanocatalyst.

One of the principles of green chemistry is using inexpensive reagents and catalysts to design green route for synthesis of organic compounds. Recently magnetic nanoparticles have provided a considerable merits. In this study, hollow Fe3O4@Dopamine-SO3H has been successfully applied for the green synthesis of tetrahydrobenzo[b]pyrans and spirooxindoles via one-pot multi-component reaction. Chemical reagents were purchased from Merck and Aldrich. Melting points were determined using an Electrothermal 9100. Fourier transform infrared and NMR spectra were recorded with a Shimadzu 8400 spectrometer and Bruker spectrometer, respectively. The reaction between benzaldehyde, malononitrile and dimedone was selected as the model for synthesis of tetrahydrobenzo[b]pyran. The obtained results showed that the best amount of catalyst is 0.01 g and the reaction has occurred in solvent free condition at 70°C. The results showed that both electron-withdrawing and electron-donating substituents have an acceptable yield in the reaction. After that the scope of this method was evaluated in one-pot synthesis of spirooxindole derivatives through three-component reaction of isatin derivatives, malononitrile or ethyl cyanoacetate and 1,3-cycllic diketone. The optimum condition was 0.01 g catalyst using H2O under reflux condition. Then other derivatives produced in excellent yields during short reaction times. Tetrahydrobenzo[b]pyran and spirooxindole derivatives in the presence of this catalyst were synthesized. The ease of preparation and handling of the catalyst and operational simplicity are some of the main advantages of this work. In addition, the catalyst could be recycled and reused at least six times without notable reduction in its catalytic activity.

Preparation of LiFePO₄/C Cathode Materials via a Green Synthesis Route for Lithium-Ion Battery Applications.

In this work, LiFePO4/C composite were synthesized via a green route by using Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) nanoparticles, Lithium carbonate (Li2CO3), glucose powder and phosphoric acid (H3PO4) solution as raw materials. The reaction principles for the synthesis of LiFePO4/C composite were analyzed, suggesting that almost no wastewater and air polluted gases are discharged into the environment. The morphological, structural and compositional properties of the LiFePO4/C composite were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Raman and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra coupled with thermogravimetry/Differential scanning calorimetry (TG/DSC) thermal analysis in detail. Lithium-ion batteries using such LiFePO4/C composite as cathode materials, where the loading level is 2.2 mg/cm2, exhibited excellent electrochemical performances, with a discharge capability of 161 mA h/g at 0.1 C, 119 mA h/g at 10 C and 93 mA h/g at 20 C, and a cycling stability with 98.0% capacity retention at 1 C after 100 cycles and 95.1% at 5 C after 200 cycles. These results provide a valuable approach to reduce the manufacturing costs of LiFePO4/C cathode materials due to the reduced process for the polluted exhaust purification and wastewater treatment.

ZnS-based dual nano-semiconductors (ZnS/PbS, ZnS/CdS or ZnS/Ag2S,): A green synthesis route and photocatalytic comparison for removing organic dyes

Organic dyes generating from many industries are considered as a potential source of water-pollution and have negative effects on human health. The present study was aimed to construct a green synthesis method for fabrication of ZnS-based dual nano-semiconductors and to compare the photocatalytic properties for removing cationic and anionic dyes. ZnS nanoparticles were synthesized using a template synthesis in bovine serum albumin (BSA) solution and then ZnS/PbS, ZnS/CdS and ZnS/Ag2S dual nano-semiconductors were prepared using ion-exchange method. Prepared nano-semiconductors were characterized by using HR-TEM, XRD, FTIR, TG/DTA and AAS. Moreover, photocatalytic activity of prepared nano-semiconductors was tested against Rhodamine B (cationic dye) and Methyl Orange (anionic dye). Results revealed that a controllable ZnS/PbS, ZnS/CdS and ZnS/Ag2S ratio in nano-semiconductors can be achieved by adjusting the ion-exchange time. Prepared ZnS based composites exhibited higher photocatalytic efficiency than that of ZnS alone. In addition, photocatalytic activity of ZnS-based dual nano-semiconductors was found to be dependent upon composition and ratio of sulphides in nano-semiconductors with environmental pH. It was concluded that the combination of template synthesis and ion-exchange method is a feasible approach to fabricate new photocatalysts with higher photocatalytic activity.

Effect of CePO4 on structural, magnetic and optical properties of ceria nanoparticles

We report an intrinsic dilute ferromagnetism in CeO2 nanoparticles prepared by a green synthesis route where Artocarpus Heterophyllus leaf extract is used as a bioreducing agent. ions from leaf extract lock oxygen vacancy derived Ce3+ ions as CePO4 at surface of the CeO2 nanoparticles. The observed ferromagnetic behavior is strongly influenced by the distribution of frustrated Ce3+ ions at surface which has been attributed to the RKKY (Ruderman–Kittel–Kasuya–Yosida) type indirect exchange interaction of the spins. A giant redshift (∼0.3 eV) in the optical bandgap with decrease in particle size indicates the presence of a spin polaron formed by the interaction between heavy fermion & charge carrier electrons in the system. The concept of locking the surface spins by phosphate ions may open up new possibilities for manipulation of the spin polarized charge carriers in future spintronics researches.

Coal tar- and residual oil-derived porous carbon as metal-free catalyst for nitroarene reduction to aminoarene

Nitroarenes reduction is an important technology in the industrial production of aminoarenes. In this work, we presented an environment-friendly and low-cost green synthesis route for preparation of oxygen and nitrogen co-doped porous carbon (ONPC) via acid oxidation and alkali activation methods using coal tar- and residual oil-based as starting materials, and the prepared ONPC was employed as metal-free carbon catalyst for nitroarenes reduction to aminoarenes in the presence of hydrazine hydrate. This ONPC catalyst showed much higher catalytic activity as compared to those of un-doped porous carbon (PC), activated carbon (AC) and carbon black, which was attributed to its large surface area and developed pore structure as well as O and N co-doping. Additionally, it also exhibited a versatility in various aromatic nitro-compounds reduction to relative aromatic amines. Experimental results by using model catalysts to simulate different carbons with various oxygen-containing groups proved that carbonyl groups were more favorable for nitrobenzene reduction to aniline. Upon co-doping O and N into PC, the two kinds of introduced species synergistically promoted the catalytic activity of PC. Good performance together with low-cost preparation makes oxygen and nitrogen co-doped porous carbon a potential substitution of supported metal catalyst for nitroarenes reduction.

Ibuprofen: Original Versus Green Synthesis

This paper makes a parallel between the original route versus the green route of Ibuprofen (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs most commonly recommended) synthesis. The original route contained six steps with stoichiometric reagents (some reagents are very toxic: hydrochloric acid, ammonia), a lot of intermediate products, relatively low atom efficiency equal to 40.04% and substantial inorganic salt formation (aluminium trichloride hydrate). The green route of Ibuprofen synthesis developed only three steps, a lower amount of waste and by-products (only acetic acid that can be used for another applications) and an atom efficiency of 77.44%. The green route for Ibuprofen synthesis is an exquisite example of a simple and elegant chemical/pharmaceutical manufacturing process and the nearly complete atom utilization of this streamlined process truly makes it a wasteminimizing, environmentally friendly technology.

Biosynthesis of Ultrasonically Modified Ag-MgO Nanocomposite and Its Potential for Antimicrobial Activity

This study reports a green synthesis route for a bilayered Ag-MgO nanocomposite using aqueous peel extract of Citrus paradisi (grapefruit red) under an accelerated uniform heating technique and its antibacterial potency against Escherichia coli. Surface modifications and composition of the nanocomposite were examined using a UV-visible spectrophotometer, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyzer. The efficiencies of the as-synthesized Ag-MgO nanocomposite against Escherichia coli were examined. The synthesized Ag-MgO nanocomposite showed characteristic synergetic bands at 290 nm for MgO nanoparticle and at around 440 nm for Ag nanoparticle which blue-shifted to 380 nm in the composite. A spherically dispersed nanocomposite with cubical crystal lattice network with a diameter of about 20–100 nm comprising Ag nanoparticle embedded within MgO nanoparticles was obtained. The nanocomposite produced stronger antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli as compared to MgO nanoparticle, indicating a higher interaction between Ag and MgO ions. The nanocomposite was successfully synthesized via an efficient modified method by bioreductive agents with an improved synergistic antibacterial property towards water purification.

Phytofunctionalized silver nanoparticles: green biomaterial for biomedical and environmental applications

AbstractVariegated physicochemical routes with emerging modifications have been adopted and reported for silver nanoparticle synthesis for centuries. Nano-biotechnology aimed at the synthesis of nanomaterials, including silver nanoparticles, through utilization of biological media has acquired an auspicious role in science for human welfare. Despite recurrent nanoscale researches on physicochemical routes, coeval stages are predominated by greener methods in silver nanoparticle synthesis for the utilization of its inherent toxicity and exceedingly smaller sizes for biological and environmental applications. One of the principles of green routes for silver nanoparticle synthesis is reduction and stabilization via phytochemicals extracted from plants in a one-pot protocol of phytofunctionalization. Plants are preferred for their abundant availability, environmental non-toxicity and economical favorability and chiefly for the ease of aptness, unlike microbial pathways having tedious requirements of cellular culture maintenance conditions. The present work reviewed the most recent milestones set in the selection of types and parts of plants and optimized synthetic conditions employed in the fabrication of silver nanoparticles, in addition to quantitative and qualitative characterization. Furthermore, the use of phytofunctionalized silver nanoparticles for microbial growth inhibition and environmental remediation was also studied. Through the meticulous review of literature, potential applications were highlighted, which can provide researchers with a plethora of avenues for future investigations for remediation of the environment, in terms of both combating pathogenic microbes and environmental detoxification.