Green Earth Research Articles

Investigating the morphological and chemical characteristics of surviving neo‐rococo wall paintings in Egypt

AbstractCairo's 19th‐century buildings with historic and cultural importance are decorated with a prosperous coloring palette. In the present work, samples of pictorial layers and gilded surfaces from El‐Gawhara Palace, the Great mosque of Muhammad Ali Pasha, and the Palace of Shubra were studied. Since there is a research gap concerning the painting materials in those monuments, the present study aims to characterize the pictorial surfaces in the studied buildings and to compare the results with other paintings from the same period. The material characterization included microscopic examination via an optical digital microscope. The surface morphology, microstructure, and the elemental identification were accomplished using a field‐emission scanning electron microscopy and energy‐dispersive X‐ray micro‐analyzer. In addition, Fourier transform infrared spectrometer was used to confirm some findings. The results allowed a sufficient understanding of the paint layers and their chemical nature. The analytical methods revealed ultramarine blue (Na7Al6Si6O24S3) as the blue coloring material in the studied buildings. Further, an obvious discoloration in the blue paint layer from El‐Gawhara Palace was reported. Green earth was identified in the great mosque of Muhammad Ali Pasha and in Shubra Palace. Lead (II) oxide (massicot, PbO) was used for the yellow color in Shubra Palace and a mixture of lampblack and magnetite (Fe3O4) was possibly used for the black color in El‐Gawhara Palace. For the gilding technique in Shubra Palace, mechanically adhered gold‐silver leaves were preferred.

Material characterization and restoration of mural paintings of El-Muzzawaka Tombs, Dakhla Oases, Egypt

The present study demonstrates scientific procedures applied to study mural paintings in two Graeco-Roman tombs of El-Muzzawaka, Dakhla Oases, Egypt. First, a series of analytical methods was applied to determine the chemical and mineralogical composition of pigment and plaster samples collected from the studied tombs. The analyses were performed by means of digitalized optical microscopy (OM), polarized light microscopy (PLM), scanning electron microscopy attached with X-ray microanalysis detector (SEM−EDS), X−ray diffraction analysis (XRD), and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT−IR). Analyses of the pigment samples revealed Egyptian blue, Egyptian green, green earth, black magnetite, and red/yellow ochres. The paintings were applied on a coarse plaster layer made of gypsum, anhydrite, calcite, and quartz. The preparation layer was made of two phases of calcium sulphate (gypsum and anhydrite). Further, the detection of an organic binder, of gum Arabic, confirms the application of tempera technique. The results showed that the bed rock samples contain variable amounts of quartz, anhydrite, montmorillonite, kaolinite, gypsum, and sodium chloride (halite). In situ observations showed several deterioration forms on the studied mural paintings. The destructive climatic condition of the region and the defects of the rock structure have contributed seriously in the deterioration process. Based on experimental tests, multi restoration procedures were applied in form of cleaning, reattaching paint flakes, applying injection grouts to detached layers, reconstruction of missing parts in the plaster, repair of wide-open cracks, and final protective consolidation of the painted surfaces. Further, recommendations to minimize any future damage were discussed.

Two centuries of painted plasters from the Lateran suburban villa (Rome): investigating supply routes and manufacturing of pigments

• Combined non-destructive analytical approach using portable instrumentation • Complementary techniques and multivariate analysis allow characterization of pigments • Improved knowledge on pigments production, sourcing and use in 27 BC – 193 AD Rome Polychrome painted plasters from a suburban villa of Imperial epoch were recovered during the 1930s, and are currently exhibited in the galleries underneath the St. John in Lateran Church, Rome. As wall paintings from the Rome area are a rare find, and as the fragments were never subjected to conservation treatments, it was chosen to non-invasively characterize 113 coloured areas, representative of colours and decorative systems. The chemical and mineralogical information collected from this measurement campaign were interpreted in the light of archaeological context (i.e. the high status of the family who owned the villa , the different renovation works that affected it, the identification of decorative systems linked to such works), as well as of published data from contemporary wall paintings in the Rome area. A multi-analytical, non-destructive characterization of the painted surfaces was carried out in situ by means of portable Raman spectroscopy (pRS) and X-ray fluorescence (pXRF), in the framework of a wider project concerning the study of raw materials and paintings of archaeological interest. The combination of pXRF and pRS allowed to characterize the whole palette, as well as to discriminate among different pigments sharing the same key element, and to identify degradation issues. In this context, the use of principal component analysis gave an important contribution to the interpretation of data ant to the individuation and characterization of pigments such as ochres, green earths, lead based pigments, Egyptian blue, cinnabar, Tyrian purple. Calcium and magnesium carbonates are present, as expected, in the plaster, and are often associated with their sulphates and nitrates, and Ca-oxalates indicating degradation. Lead white and bone white have been used. Some peculiar yellow pigments have been identified, such as realgar/pararealgar and Naples’ yellow, in addition to ochres. Hematite, minium and cinnabar were all identified, alone or in mixtures. The presence of the precious dye Tyrian purple is very likely, but could not be confirmed univocally. Green earths and complex mixtures of iron and copper compounds were detected. Egyptian blue was used, highlighting different production processes for this artificial glassy material. For the blacks, we hypothesize the use of carbon-based pigments. The obtained data confirms the general palette used by Roman painters, and sheds new light on the materials used in the Lateran area across two centuries, including their provenance and manufacturing. It appears that different earths and ochres were used diachronically, and that the owners could afford very expensive pigments, such as cinnabar and Tyrian purple.

Integrated analytical approach to unveil the secrets of the recently discovered \u201cSphinx Room\u201d: a new piece of Domus Aurea puzzle

The recent discovery of the Sphinx Room, belonging to the Domus Aurea Esquiline wing, thanks to the framework given by the project “Non-destructive analytical studies at Parco Archeologico del Colosseo (Rome, Italy)”, allowed to perform an analytical campaign, both in situ and on micro-fragments. The first aim was to contribute to the overall comprehension of the Domus Aurea complex and to contextualize the newly-discovered room inside this extraordinary imperial architecture by means of an archaeometrical characterisation of the painting materials. The palette, composed of Egyptian blue, green earths, iron- and lead-based red, orange and yellow, calcite, carbon-based black, allowed to compare the Sphinx Room to Corridor 92 and Room 114 of Domus Aurea and to other sites in Rome. Furthermore, the employ of an organic binder in some spots can be put forward based on spectroscopic results, which does not exclude a wider use of the a fresco. Furthermore, a complementary methodological strategy was designed, in order to achieve a complete characterization of the materials. In addition to the well-known combination of portable X-ray fluorescence and portable/laboratory Raman analyses, Infrared Fourier Transform Spectroscopy was used, both in situ (Diffuse Reflectance) and in the lab (Attenuated Total Reflectance). The results confirm the suitability of this approach for the characterization of Roman wall paintings, where both inorganic and organic materials are simultaneously present.

By the Hand of Angelos? Analytical Investigation of a Remarkable 15th Century Cretan Icon

A 15th century St Theodoros icon of outstanding quality is on display at the Zakynthos Ecclesiastical Art Museum. On the basis of certain stylistic characteristics, this icon has been attributed to the legendary Cretan painter Angelos Akotantos. In order to explore the latter attribution, the icon was subjected to examination via multispectral imaging, while microsamples were investigated through an optical microscope (OM), a scanning electron microscope coupled with an energy dispersive analyzer (SEM-EDX), μ-Raman and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The data were evaluated in the light of the findings of recent analytical studies conducted on several genuine Angelos icons. Identified materials include gypsum, gold leaf, bole, natural ultramarine, lead white, charcoal, green earth, red lake, minium, cinnabar, and red and yellow ochres. The identified materials resemble those employed by Angelos, while the identification of ultramarine is of particular significance, as this extremely expensive and rather rare pigment was very often used by the particular painter. Moreover, multispectral imaging reveals notable painting technique similarities between the icon in consideration and known Angelos icons, while cross sections of corresponding samples exhibit almost identical structures. Overall, the present work considerably strengthens the suggestion that the St Theodoros icon in consideration was painted by Angelos and also widens our knowledge regarding the late Byzantine painting.

A multi-analytical study of funerary wall paintings in the Roman necropolis of Camino Viejo de Almodóvar (Córdoba, Spain)

The necropolis of Camino Viejo de Almodovar (Cordoba, southern Spain) is one of several burial grounds dating from Roman Corduba. In this work, we used various optical and laser techniques, including optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy in combination with energy-dispersive spectroscopy and micro-Raman (μ-Raman) spectroscopy to identify the pigments used in wall painting fragments unearthed in excavations at the site. The results thus obtained were confirmed and supplemented by using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. The experimental evidence provided by these techniques allowed us to identify the materials used to obtain the pigments, namely: lime, hematite, cinnabar, goethite, Egyptian blue, coal and green earth.

The association of fractional cover, foliage projective cover and biodiversity with birthweight

IntroductionEnvironmental exposures can contribute both benefits and risks to human health. Maternal exposure to green space has been associated with improvements in birthweight, among other birth outcomes. Newer measures of green space have been developed, which allows for an exploration of the effect of different ground covers (green, dry and bare earth), as well as measures of biodiversity. This study explores the association of these novel green space measures with birthweight in a large birth cohort in Queensland, Australia. MethodsBirthweight was acquired from the routine health records. Records were allocated green space values for fractional cover, biodiversity and foliage projective cover. Directed acyclic graphs were developed to guide variable selection. Mixed-effects linear regression and generalised linear mixed-effects models were developed, with random intercepts for maternal residential locality and year of birth. Results are presented as standardised beta coefficients or odds ratios, with 95% confidence intervals. ResultsAn IQR increase of green cover (29.6 g, 95% CI 13.8–45.5) and foliage projective cover (26.0 g, 95% CI 10.8–41.3) are associated with birthweight in urban areas. An IQR increase in dry cover −34.4 g, 95% CI -60.4 to −8.4) and bare earth (−17.7 g, 95% CI -32.8 to −2.6) are associated with lower birthweight. Mothers living in rural areas had similar results, with an IQR increase in green cover (17.8 g, 95% CI 2.9–32.7) associated with higher birthweight, and bare earth (−27.7 g, 95% CI -45.7 to −9.7) was associated with lower birthweight. The biodiversity measure used in this study was not associated with any birthweight outcomes. ConclusionThis study finds that the types of ground cover within the maternal residential locality are associated with small, but significant, changes in estimated birthweight, and these effects are not limited to urban areas.

The altar wall paintings of the catholicon "The Nativity of the Virgin", Rila Monastery, Bulgaria: Identification of the painting materials by means of vibrational spectroscopic techniques complemented by EDX, XRD and TGA analysis.

The purpose of the present study is to deepen our knowledge about the painting materials and technology characteristics of iconography during the Bulgarian National Revival. Our efforts have focused on studying the murals in the catholicon (main church) "The Nativity of the Virgin" of the Rila Monastery, which is one of Bulgarian leading historical monuments. A series of micro samples from the altar mural paintings were analyzed by a combination of attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR), micro-Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Optical microscopy (OM). The data analysis showed that the painter's palette is made up of nine mineral pigments: smalt, chrome yellow, emerald green, vermilion, red lead, green earths, yellow ochre, sienna and calcite. The impression of rich colorful palette was achieved by using various pigment mixtures. The presence of egg binder in many paint samples suggested that the murals were executed by the traditional egg tempera technique, with the only exception of the smalt paint of the background where carbohydrate glue is present as binder.

Execution technique and pigment characteristics of decorative wall from 17th CE Chatta Chowk, Red Fort Complex, New Delhi

The decorative wall painting from 17 th CE Chatta Chowk was investigated to study the composition and characteristics of the pigment used in the decorative arts. The pigments were examined by thin cross-sections, High-Resolution X-ray diffraction (HR-XRD) analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and, portable Raman spectrometry. Besides, gas chromatograph-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used for identifying pigment binders. Analysis results showed the stratigraphy of the paint layer applied over fine lime plaster in a well-controlled manner mixed with binders according to the secco technique. The identified pigments for red paint layers were attributed to the mixture of hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ), cinnabar (HgS) and cadmium sulfide (CdS). The utilization of admixture of mercury, iron and cadmium compounds has served as a clear evidence in order specific tones on the painted surfaces. The green paint layer was attributed to green earth (celadonite) through vibrational features, differentiating from glauconite spectra. The GC-MS analysis of the pigment showed the use of fats, waxes and drying oils as binders.

Environment-friendly FSM design on ultra-scale architecture: energy-efficient green computing approach

PurposeThe Purpose of this research is to make an energy efficient finite state machine (FSM) in order to achieve the core objective of green computing because FSM is an indispensable part of multiple computer hardware.Design/methodology/approachThis study uses ultra-scale plus FPGA architecture in place of seven-series field-programmable gate array (FPGA) for the implementation of the FSM design and also uses output load scaling for the design of environment-friendly FSM. This design study is done using Verilog Hardware description language and Vivado integrated system environment design tools and implemented on 16 nm ultra-scale FPGA architecture.FindingsThere is up to 98.57% reduction in dynamic power when operating frequency is managed as per smart job scheduling. There is up to a 21.97% reduction in static power with proper management of output load capacitance. There is up to 98.43% saving in dynamic power with the proposed management of output load capacitance.Originality/valueThe proposed design will be environment friendly that eventually leads to the green earth. This is the main motive of the research area i.e. green computing.

Pigments on Roman Wall Painting and Stucco Fragments from the Monte d’Oro Area (Rome): A Multi-Technique Approach

This work concerns the characterisation of a set of wall painting and stucco fragments collected during a rescue excavation carried out in 2013 by the Soprintendenza Archeologica in the Monte d’Oro area (Rome). Due to the contextless archaeological situation, analyses were performed to obtain more information about the collected materials. A multi-analytical approach has been applied including spectroscopic (FTIR, Raman and visible reflectance analyses) and elemental analysis (SEM-EDS) techniques. The chromatic palette has been in this way disclosed evidencing the use of pigments such as cinnabar, Egyptian blue, red and yellow ochre and green earth, but also the simultaneous use of them. The presence of a decoration achieved by using a gold leaf has been highlighted also, indicating the preciousness of the decorations. The convenience and advantages linked to the use of portable instrumentation have been also evidenced.

When We Keep Going.

What does it feel like to have acidic blood? In medical school we learned that a pH below 6.8 is generally thought to be incompatible with life. But is it painful? Nauseating? Before my fellowship in palliative care, I completed my residency in emergency medicine. In the ED, diabetic patients presenting with vomiting from ketoacidosis could clock in a pH below 7 and recover quickly. But that was before the hospital ran out of residents to staff the COVID ICU and drafted many of us as fellows to fill in. It was my second to last day covering in the ICU when I saw Mr. L’s pH dip below seven. I wondered again what it felt like to have acidic blood. Mr. L had presented to the hospital about a month before. He was in his late sixties and had spent the last year in a nursing home. Now, COVID-19 was ravaging his body. After spending weeks on a ventilator, he developed septic shock related to multiple pneumonias. Eventually, when he started to decompensate, a lab tech called every six hours to inform me that his pH was “7.03,” then “7.02,” and then “6.96.” By policy he was not allowed visitors. During daily calls with his family, his wife was clear that she didn’t want her husband to suffer, but deferred to her son to make decisions. His son said his dad was a fighter. Mr. L loved the Chicago Bulls and had been married to his wife for thirty years. The son was sure his dad wouldn’t “give up.” It was Saturday evening when I was paged. His pH was 6.8. “Unfortunately, I have bad news,” I said. “Your father’s blood pressure is low. I’m worried he’s dying.” “We can shorten his suffering if we pause some of his infusions and let him die naturally.” His son wouldn’t have it. “No,” he said. “Keep going.” “He’s a fighter,” his son declared. Sensing his resolve, I thought to myself, “fighting for what?” Maybe he was a fighter. Maybe Mr. L wanted to spend his last days “fighting,” raging, burning for every minute on this green earth. But his son was home with his family. And I was with Mr. L watching him die. His son ended the call quickly. I could hear laughter before the phone clicked silent. While I held the phone to my ear, I felt myself sink away from their peculiar joy into a swamp of melancholy. I finally put the phone down and looked at the telemetry monitor. Mr. L’s heart continued to beat, beat, beat. “Hello, I am so sorry to bring you this news but your father died this morning.” His son replied stoically, “I need to be with my family now. You did everything you could for him.” I don’t feel like I did everything I could for him. Maybe I could have been more clear on the phone with his family. Should I have spent more time speaking with his wife, describing how sick he was? From where I stood, with only a pane of glass between us, his last moments were grueling and lonely. His family will remember something far more dignified: a fantasy I peddled over and over again during our daily phone calls, eager to deliver when they ached for good news. The way I see it, I was his only visitor and I had trained to alleviate suffering. But I failed Mr. L. That’s what I’ll remember.

Territory and related artworks: Stuccoworks from the lombard lakes

The paper presents the analytical campaign carried out on the Baroque stucco decorations by Italian artists known as Artists of the Lakes. Forty samples (from moldings, background, sculpture bas- and high- reliefs) from the churches of S. Lorenzo in Laino, S. Maria dei Ghirli in Campione d’Italia and S. Maria Assunta in Puria (Como, Italy) were analysed by chemical and mineralogical techniques and the data were discussed with a multi-disciplinary approach with art historians, in order to enlighten and compare the artistic techniques. Binders, aggregates, pigments and organic fractions were determined using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with EDS microprobe, X-ray powder diffraction, Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The substrate is constituted by a mixture of magnesian lime, silicatic and/or carbonatic aggregate. Layers sequence varies from the simple pattern of S. Maria dei Ghirli, (1 or 2 layers), to the complexity of S. Lorenzo where up to 9 layers above the substrate were observed. Pigment particles were identified as ochres and as green earth in a single case. Three different gilding techniques are described, as the gold leaf is applied over a chrome yellow ground ( a missione ), over a layer composed by ochre and lead white or over a brass leaf. In some cases organic materials were recognized: oil in gilding preparations and egg mixed with ochre pigments. A carbon black based pigment was identified by Raman spectroscopy in some decorative motifs. The sequence and composition of the finishing layers, the accumulation of particulate matter and the use of gypsum on purpose depending on the decorations typology, enlightened the artist skills, showing how different needs and timing influenced the commissions in the buildings.

Light Reflection Loss Reduction by Nano-Structured Gratings for Highly Efficient Next-Generation GaAs Solar Cells

This paper mainly focuses on increasing the conversion efficiency of GaAs solar cells by reducing the light reflection losses. The design of nano-structured gratings and their light trapping performance are modelled and optimised by using the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method. The sunlight directly impinges on the solar panel or cells, then a portion of the incident sunlight reflects back to the air from the surface of the panel, thus leading to a reduction in the light absorption capacity of the solar cells. In order to proliferate the light absorption capacity of solar cells nano-grating structures are employed, as they are highly capable of capturing the incident sunlight compared to a conventional (or flat type) solar cell, which results in generating more electrical energy. In this study, we design three different types of nano-grating structures, optimise their parameters and their performance in light capturing capacity. From the simulation results, we confirm that that it is possible to reduce light reflection losses up to 27%, by using the nano-grating structures, compared to conventional type solar cells. This reduction of reflection losses helps to improve the conversion efficiency of next-generation GaAs solar cells significantly for a sustainable green Earth.

Comparison of Cloud‐Top Property Retrievals From Advanced Himawari Imager, MODIS, CloudSat/CPR, CALIPSO/CALIOP, and Radiosonde

AbstractThe information on cloud properties and microphysical characteristics is critical for environmental research and application, such as that on weather, climate, hydrology, and green energy and Earth energy budget. The launch of the new‐generation geostationary satellite, for example, the Japanese Himawari‐8, enables retrieval of cloud information through multichannel observation. To confirm the retrievals from the Advanced Himawari Imager (AHI) onboard Himawari‐8 (Himawari‐8/AHI), this study accessed the cloud retrievals from AHI and compare them against those obtained from spaceborne passive and active sensors on the low Earth orbit satellites, such as NASA's CloudSat, Cloud‐Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO). The atmospheric thermodynamic state from in situ radiosonde provides another dimension for evaluating the retrieved cloud‐top temperature and height, which were obtained and analyzed during two research cruises over the South China Sea during monsoon onset season with large cloud variability to ensure the comprehensive intercomparisons. The findings show that the cloud‐top altitude, cloud optical thickness, and cloud effective particle radius retrieved from AHI are consistent with passive Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data. Furthermore, both spaceborne active Cloud Priofiling Radar (CPR) and Cloud‐Aerosol Lidar with Orthogonal Polarization (CALIOP) data confirm the low uncertainty of cloud‐top altitude, particularly when the cloud is optically thick. Large cloud‐top altitude discrepancy among these data in the optically thin cloud might be due to the limited AHI spectral channels or instrumental spatial resolutions. The cloud‐top temperature and altitudes in either liquid or ice phase cloud agree well with collocated sounding profiles, with low difference of 1 K and 170 m, respectively.

Green earth pigments dispersions: Water dynamics at the interfaces

HypothesisThe objective is to elucidate the multiscale dynamics of water within natural mixtures of minerals, green earth pigments that are mainly composed of phyllosilicates containing large amount of iron. In particular, the interaction of water with the different kinds of surfaces has to be probed. One issue is to examine the influence of surface type, basal or edge, on the dispersion quality. ExperimentThe study was carried out using 1H variable field NMR relaxometry on various green earth pigment dispersions and concentrations. To analyse the data, a new analytical model was developed for natural phyllosilicates containing large amount of paramagnetic centres. FindingThe proposed theoretical framework is able to fit the experimental data for various samples using few parameters. It allows to determining water diffusion and residence times in complex phyllosilicate dispersions. Furthermore, it makes it possible to differentiate the contribution of the basal and edge surfaces and their respective surface area in interaction with water. Moreover, NMR relaxation profile reveals to be highly sensitive to the structural aspect of the phyllosilicates and to the accessibility of water to iron, hence allowing to discriminate clearly between two very similar phyllosilicates (glauconite and celadonite) that are difficult to distinguish by standard structural methods.

Factors Encourage People to Ignore Environmental Health: A Study Qualitative of Climate Management, Common People’s Perspective

The flood disaster that hit Indonesia at the beginning of the year 2020 and the earlier haze and forest fires was very shocking and alarming not only Indonesian but also people of neighboring countries. Indonesian did not prepare for these disasters. These disasters are caused by people's ignorance of environmental safety. Indonesian are religious people, they obey religious laws and rules. They come to pray to the Almighty God regularly. Harm nature is forbidden by religion. The phenomena are, even though religions teach to conserve nature, many people still destroy them. The focus of the study was the perceptions of common people concerning the environment. The research questions are what is the people's perception of nature and the environment? What is the situation that encourages people to ignore the environment? What is the level of environmental knowledge of the common people of Indonesia? What is the best way to wake people up and realize the importance of the preservation of nature and living environment? This qualitative study which uses Phenomenological and Grounded Theory approach with in-depth interviews collecting data procedures found 5 main perspectives of people concerning their involvement of environment and climate change, 1) Environment is a Government responsibility, 2) Economics reason, 3) Lack of knowledge and skills of climate change, 4) No spirit of togetherness to conserve the environment, 5) Climate Changes has no instant and direct impact on oneself. This study contributes to the environmental management to understand the resident’s perception of saving the environment or green Earth and the factors of why people ignoring environmental health. Furthermore, the research findings will help the environmentalist can develop the models to awakening the awareness of people to the green environment and make the right action of conserving nature.

Re-Discovering a Roman Wall Painting at Harvard: New Research on a Fragment from the Villa at Boscotrecase

ABSTRACT This article presents historical and scientific analysis, as well as the conservation treatment of a newly rediscovered Roman wall painting fragment, now in the collection of the Harvard Art Museums. Although the piece has not previously been published, it was among a group of fragments removed from a Roman villa near Boscotrecase in southern Italy, an area that has been key to the study of Roman wall painting and other decoration. Technical imaging confirms the use of painting techniques consistent with other high-quality paintings in the area. Materials analysis revealed a palette consistent with published findings of Roman wall paintings, including abundant use of Egyptian blue and green earth. Of interest was the use of Egyptian blue as an optical brightener in select white passages. Despite the high quality of the painting, no cinnabar was present, and all red passages were achieved using hematite. Multiple different white minerals were identified including calcite, aragonite, and gypsum. The widespread presence of gypsum is unusual and may point to alteration.

Fight for the green earth: The existence of local knowledge in agriculture

Traditional agriculture has always been taking place in rural areas. This agricultural model tends to utilize simple technology and is in accordance with local socio-cultural conditions. The traditional agricultural model is also the opposition of modern agriculture in the concept of a green environment or green earth. If modern agriculture has many negative impacts on the environment, then traditional agriculture has many positive impacts on the lives of all earthly creatures. This paper aims to reveal the actions of farmers in managing their agricultural land based on local knowledge. This research took place in three locations, namely: (1) Labuku Village, Maiwa District, Enrekang Regency, (2) Ilan Batu Village, Walenrang Barat District, Luwu Regency, (3) Segeri Village Segeri District, Pangkep Regency. The informants of this study were farmers in the three regions. Each region has 2 informants so that the total was 6 informants. The key informants are each of the traditional leaders, and village officials. Data collection using interview techniques, observation, and study of literature. Data analysis uses Three-Flow techniques namely reduction, categorization, and conclusion. The results showed that traditional farming techniques in Labuku, Ilan Batu, and Segeri Village were characterized by rain-fed rice fields, not using chemical fertilizers as plant fertilizers, rice disease repellent, and rat repellent but instead using betel leaves, betel nuts, and lime. Even so, high-quality rice is harvested once a year. The conclusion of this research is that traditional knowledge-based agriculture in the research location always uses the surrounding environment resources. Such methods directly impact on the creation of a green environment and indirectly counteract the negative impacts of modern agriculture.

Preliminary non-invasive study of Carolingian pigments in the churches of St. John at Müstair and St. Benedict at Malles

The monastery church of Mustair (Val Mustair, Switzerland) and the church of St. Benedict in Malles (Obervinschgau, Italy) contain painting cycles dating to the late eighth/early ninth century which are considered among the best preserved in Europe. Located inside a region of strategic importance at least since Roman times, during the medieval era both areas formed part of the diocese of Chur and were politically and culturally closely linked; the present border, in fact, developed in the course of the early modern period. The two painting cycles have been studied with a non-invasive approach using spectral multiband imaging, UV-visible diffuse reflectance spectrophotometry with fiber optics (FORS) and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF). The combined application of these techniques gave important insights into the painting techniques used in the two cycles. Clear similarities in the palette of pigments appeared; the colour palette included mainly materials typically used in medieval mural paintings, such as red and yellow ochres, carbon black, Bianco di San Giovanni and green earth, but lead pigments, such as red lead and massicot, which are less suited for use on plaster surfaces, were used as well. Of particular interest is the use of Egyptian blue and ultramarine blue that makes these paintings among the first in which the precious lapis lazuli pigment had been used in Europe. The occurrence of Egyptian blue and ultramarine blue puts the paintings closer to the ancient Roman than to the Romanesque tradition. A surprising result was the identification of As, which might indicate the use of orpiment for the creation of the wall paintings.