Greek Thought Research Articles

Artificial intelligence in healthcare

Artificial Intelligence is the approach in which we create artificial human intellect to understand and act rationally in the particular situation. This is basically engrossing human intellect in a machine for the growth of mankind. It is not a new concept and can be traced back to the Ancient Greek thinkers who encouraged the coding of machines with the ability of rationalized thing as of Human Brain. In Medicine and Health Care, Artificial Intelligence has advanced from PC projects to help the examination of clinical pictures to its joining in pretty much every clinical and hierarchical area. This paper gives an outline of the current and not so distant future uses of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Medicine and Health Care and presents a characterization as per their moral and cultural viewpoints, likely advantages and entanglements, and issues that can be viewed as questionable and are not profoundly talked about in the writing.

The Concept of Motion in Ancient Greek Thought: Foundations in Logic, Method, and Mathematics by Barbara M. Sattler

The Concept of Motion in Ancient Greek Thought: Foundations in Logic, Method, and Mathematics by Barbara M. Sattler

Public security in the pre-classical political and legal thought of ancient Greece

A thorough theoretical and legal study of the key features of general philosophical and special legal understanding and interpretation of security issues of man, society and state in the pre-classical political and legal thought of ancient Greece is given. An analysis of the views of ancient Greek authors (poets, philosophers, historians, lawyers) who are representatives of socio-philosophical and political legal thought of the period against the background of widespread collective ideas about security as a state of social relations, the condition of human (social) life and / or unique social value, objects (spheres) of this security, as well as subjects and regulatory mechanisms to ensure the appropriate state of society and the state is presented.It is proved that the ancient political and legal doctrines, which comprehend public safety, have the following main features: its nationalization (elevation of the state and its institutions in guaranteeing this security), personalization (close dependence of personal security on public, sometimes even raising personal security over public), universalization (security as a phenomenon of the space world order, general Hellenic security), rationalization (discursive understanding of public security issues), legalization (transfer of public security issues to the plane of its legal support, which becomes imperative, mandatory compliance with polis laws, a system of severe penalties for offenses in the field of public safety, law and order in society and the state), indefiniteness of the actual state and public security (which was due to the polis nature of the state system), axiologization (security as a high human and social value, as a good, as an integral element of the polis worldview and ensuring the proper organization of polis life), polymorphism (breadth of spectrum of public security and specification of its “images” in philosophy, poetry, historiography, rhetoric, etc.).It is concluded that for the vast majority of ancient Greek thinkers, security issues were related to the phenomenon of harmony between the universe, society and humanity itself. An important source of knowledge about security was considered to be the thoughts of ancient Greek philosophers about proper life and ways to achieve it. For most authors of the time, the main determinants of security were hatred, war and struggle, power and strength. Instead, they associated security with love, peace, and stability, or with a conscious refusal to use violence. For other philosophers, security was a concept of social cooperation (harmony, peace) and integration. Among the ancient Greek authors there were those who put public security in both planes at the same time, looking for its source in a kind of dialectical combination of hatred and love, war and peace, power and stability.

Thales – the ‘first philosopher’? A troubled chapter in the historiography of philosophy

ABSTRACT It is widely believed that the ancient Greeks thought that Thales was the first philosopher, and that they therefore maintained that philosophy had a Greek origin. This paper challenges these assumptions, arguing that most ancient Greek thinkers who expressed views about the history and development of philosophy rejected both positions. I argue that not even Aristotle presented Thales as the first philosopher, and that doing so would have undermined his philosophical commitments and interests. Beyond Aristotle, the view that Thales was the first philosopher is attested almost nowhere in antiquity. In the classical, Hellenistic, and post-Hellenistic periods, we witness a marked tendency to locate the beginning of philosophy in a time going back further than Thales. Remarkably, ancient Greek thinkers most often traced the origins of philosophy to earlier non-Greek peoples. Contrary to the received view, then, I argue that (1) vanishingly few Greek writers pronounced Thales the first philosopher; and (2) most Greek thinkers did not even advocate a Greek origin of philosophy. Finally, I show that the view that philosophy originated with Thales (along with its misleading attribution to the Greeks in general) has roots in problematic, and in some cases manifestly racist, eighteenth-century historiography of philosophy.

Византийская философия в современной греческой истории философии

The article summarizes the main achievements of the historical and philosophical thought of Greece (XX-XXI centuries) in the study of Byzantine philosophy. Modern Greek researchers make a significant contribution to the formation of a theoretical and methodological basis for the study of Byzantine philosophy. Based on this basis, we can discover the origins, essential features and characteristic antinomies of Byzantine philosophy. The article examines the generalizing works of Greek scientists, in which Byzantine philosophy is presented as a holistic phenomenon. Greek scholars perceive Byzantine philosophy as an integral part of the history of national philosophical thought. Therefore, the position of modern Greek thinkers is interesting and has a special heuristic value

The Organic Roots of Conatus in Early Greek Thought

The focus of this paper will be on the earliest Greek treatments of impulse, motivation, and self-animation – a cluster of concepts tied to the hormē-conatus concept. I hope to offer a plausible account of how the earliest recorded views on this subject in mythological, pre-Socratic, and Classical writings might have inspired later philosophical developments by establishing the foundations for an organic, wholly naturalized approach to human inquiry. Three pillars of that approach which I wish to emphasize are: practical intelligence (i.e., a continuity between knowing and doing), natural normativity (i.e., a continuity between human norms and the environment), and an ontology of philosophical dialectic (i.e., a continuity between the growth of human understanding and the growth of physis).

CERTAIN THEORETICAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN THE MANAGEMENT OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS

The article is devoted to the key principles of citizens’ participation in the management of public affairs. The connection between the right to participate in public administration and democracy is revealed. It is established that democracy obliges the state to create conditions for citizens to exercise their right to participate in all stages of socially significant decisions. The concept of «participatory democracy», which arose as a result of expanding the possibilities of a democratic state and legal regime and the transition to a human-centric concept of governance, is analyzed. It has been proven that in the phrase «participatory democracy» participation is understood much more broadly today than before. Thus, if the ancient Greek thinkers spoke only of political participation, then with the development of statehood and changing priorities in the activities of public institutions, it is already a question of public participation. The author identifies the basic principles of citizen participation in public administration, in particular: 1) the presence of a specific goal; 2) creating conditions for feedback; 3) alternative; 4) creating conditions for active public participation at the stage of preparation of management decisions; 5) involvement of the maximum number of participants in the discussion and adoption of the relevant management decision; 6) providing adequate open and complete information on public interaction; 7) openness and controllability of the process of public participation, the ability to formulate only realistic goals; 8) the use of quality methodological framework for the organization of the process and control over its results. The article examines the content of acts of international law on public participation in public administration, as well as the recommendations of the Council of Europe on ensuring the state’s proper level of citizens’ participation in public administration. The key principles of citizens’ participation in public administration are presented.

Divining: ΥΔΩΡ, Opacity, and Thalean Considerations

Abstract Dowsing, water-witching, divining – the procedure seeks a flow or spring beneath the surface of earth. So too this inquiry attempts to locate and sound the meanings associated with the polestar of Thalean considerations, ὕδωρ, that course beneath the interpretative strata of an overly-familiar tradition grounded in the principles of clarity and intelligibility. If these principles are held in suspension, what meanings flow from the Thalean considerations of ὕδωρ? A twofold task guides this inquiry. First is to show opacity as the primary valence of ὕδωρ, challenging the prevailing tendency to imagine Thales and other Milesian thinkers as positing a principle of clarity in the form of what can be brought under the Aristotelean concept of underlying thing and matter (ὕλη). Second, in the course of drawing up the opacity of ὕδωρ form varied archaic sources emerge some connections to important terms for Greek thinking: φύσις, λόγος, ἀλήθεια.

СТАНОВЛЕННЯ І РОЗВИТОК ПРАВ ЛЮДИНИ У СТАРОДАВНІЙ ГРЕЦІЇ

The article analyzes the emergence and development of human rights in ancient Greece as a socio-historical phenomenon. The author finds that the term «human rights» originated relatively recently and finally became established after the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the UN General Assembly on December 10, 1948, but the ideas of equality and justice were traced in such ancient collections as Hammurabi's Laws, Moses' Laws, Old Testament, Laws of Manu, etc. It is established that the protection of individual rights in ancient times became widespread in ancient Greece, where human rights became a natural consequence of the polis form of democracy and were associated mainly with the concept of citizenship, which provided the equality of all members of the policy in the exercise of rights and freedoms, especially political. Consequently, the existence of human rights, recognized by most ancient Greek thinkers, in particular the principles of equality, justice, freedom and protection of individual rights are traced in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Pythagoreans, Democritus, Sophists (especially Protagoras, Antiphon, Lycophron, Alcidamas of Elaea), Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Epicurus. Certain human rights provisions were included in the Draconian laws, which restricted the over-interpretation of the law by the archons, as well as Solon's reforms, regarding to, inter alia, the cancellation of the debts of the poor and the granting them of certain rights, including political ones. For ancient Greece, the notion of natural law, founded by Hesiod as a law by nature (feses), is fundamental. The Pythagoreans formulated the concepts of «appropriate measure» and «proportionality» as justice in human relations, which played an important role in shaping the ideas of legal equality of people. Democritus first raised the problem of individual human freedom, arguing that wise and good people, because they are able to comprehend the laws of nature and the highest justice, must live freely. The Sophists established the postulate of the fundamentality of natural law, contrasting it with positive law. Protagoras formulated the maxim: «Man is the measure of all things», which is in fact decisive in the modern concept of human rights and freedoms, where man is proclaimed the highest value. Protagoras and Antiphon substantiated the idea of equality of all people by nature. Alcidamas of Elaea, and later the Stoics developed the idea of equality of all people, including slaves. Lycophron declared personal rights an inalienable natural right. Socrates recognized political freedom, in accordance with the requirements of reason and justice, a beautiful and majestic property for both man and the state. Plato, like Socrates, identified legality (law) and justice. He proclaimed the principle of equality of all before the state, regardless of origin and gender. Aristotle distinguished between distributive and equalizing justice, which is the basis of modern legal understanding. He argued that natural law personifies political justice, which is possible only between free and equal people. Epicurus believed that justice, which comes from nature, is also a socially contractual phenomenon. He substantiated the ethical autonomy of man.

La cuestión del ser en la actualidad: un análisis desde la teoría crítica

El concepto ser se encuentra en las primeras preguntas formuladas por los pensadores griegos. Explícitamente, se hallan interrogantes como ¿qué es el ser?, ¿quién es el ser?, ¿cuál es el sentido del ser?, ¿cuál es la cosa que propiamente es? En un intento por responder a estos cuestionamientos, se abrieron dos tradiciones filosóficas: por el lado de Parménides, una que apostaba por la permanencia del ser; y por el lado de Heráclito, una que comprendía el ser en un constante advenimiento. De igual manera, se han generado discusiones en las cuales se comprende el ser o bien como esencia o bien como existencia. Sin embargo, en estas posturas así como en posteriores discusiones, se lee una comprensión del ser que centra la discusión en el ser mismo, apartado de un análisis articulado con la historia y lo social. Es así como desde la teoría crítica y en discusión con el psicoanálisis, se encontrará una posibilidad de comprender el ser en articulación con la historia, lo social y la subjetividad, de manera tal que se reavivan por un lado, las discusiones en torno a este problema filosófico por excelencia, por el otro, indagar por la esencia de lo humano en un momento histórico atravesado por una política neoliberal y una economía consumista en la que resultan obliterados tanto el sujeto como el ser. Se encuentra, finalmente, que en dimensiones propiamente humanas como el trabajo y el lenguaje, es posible trazar un camino que permita comprender el ser en relación con la subjetividad y las dinámicas propias de la época actual.

Persinggungan Filsafat dengan Bahasa Arab

This article was a study of the intersection of philosophy with Arabic. Philosophy is essentially an attempt to understand or understand reality in terms of its meanings and values. Reality is something that symbolizes language. Therefore, language is a vital tool in philosophizing, as a tool to communicate the results of thoughts. The intersection of philosophy with Arabic began in the Umayyad period, preceded by a period of conquest when Arabs took over areas previously under Roman rules, such as Egypt and Syria in the 7th century. The intersection of these Greek thoughts with Arabic occurred when the caliph Abdul Malik bin Marwan carried out Arabization reforms massively. During the Abbasid dynasty, translation activities dominated. The progress of the translation activity was fully supported by the authorities with the establishment of an institution called Bayt al-h}ikmah. This translation activity was one of the drivers of the rebirth of philosophical studies. We can say that without the contribution of translation in the golden age of Islam, Europe would never have emerged from the dark ages.

Persinggungan Filsafat dengan Bahasa Arab

This article was a study of the intersection of philosophy with Arabic. Philosophy is essentially an attempt to understand or understand reality in terms of its meanings and values. Reality is something that symbolizes language. Therefore, language is a vital tool in philosophizing, as a tool to communicate the results of thoughts. The intersection of philosophy with Arabic began in the Umayyad period, preceded by a period of conquest when Arabs took over areas previously under Roman rules, such as Egypt and Syria in the 7th century. The intersection of these Greek thoughts with Arabic occurred when the caliph Abdul Malik bin Marwan carried out Arabization reforms massively. During the Abbasid dynasty, translation activities dominated. The progress of the translation activity was fully supported by the authorities with the establishment of an institution called Bayt al-h}ikmah. This translation activity was one of the drivers of the rebirth of philosophical studies. We can say that without the contribution of translation in the golden age of Islam, Europe would never have emerged from the dark ages.

Heidegger, classical reception and the discourse of modernity: a crisis in thinking

Abstract Heidegger, perhaps the most influential philosopher of the last century, sought to do something with the Greeks never done before: to establish a new tradition of thinking. He saw in their literature and philosophy a concern with what is most essential and vital to man, and which has been glossed over and forgotten in modern thought. Controversial as his readings are, the exploration given here of Heidegger’s attempt to revive the spirit of Greek thinking reveals not only the fundamentally receptive nature of his philosophy but also the philosophical import of classical reception. While few would argue that Heidegger initiated a new tradition, he set in motion an intellectual crisis surrounding how the ills of modernity are rooted in modes of thought we must overcome. By making the Greeks the solution to this, Heidegger shifted the so-called ‘discourse of modernity’ to an assessment of the Greek’s impact on thinking today and their potential for us to think anew. As such, he made classical reception the vehicle for both understanding and critiquing the form of Modernity and its thinking. Therein lies the value of Heidegger for classical reception, because he gives it the intellectual impetus to confront what man is today.

THE CONCEPT OF AN IDEAL PERSON IN WORKS OF ARISTOTLE

The issue of a human person, and his/her development, and particularly in connection with a social sphere is extremely relevant for our times. In psychology, this issue has been developed through developmental periods, theories of personality identity and conditions that contribute to a self-actualization of an individual. In this regard, interest is how these ideas evolved in the process of cultural and historical development of humankind, how they were understood by previous generations of scientists and philosophers, how theoretical views of past generations are interpreted by the researchers of our time. This determined the objectives of this research. The authors applied the method of content analysis of the text with the aim to discover the concept of an ideal, or perfect person in works of Aristotle, to compare this concept with the corresponding views of Plato, to determine the influence of Aristotle's concept of an ideal person on modern theories of personality. The research method is a content analysis of works of Aristotle and research done by the authors that reflect a philosophical heritage of the Greek thinker. As for both, Plato and Aristotle, the soul is the basis of life and the source of human activity. For Plato the soul appears to be an indivisible and immortal entity, then for Aristotle it has its own structure. Human soul is capable of development and improvement. The main condition for improvement, according to Plato, are correct actions of a person from the point of view of law and public opinion. Aristotle believes that in this process, education and upbringing plays major attention. Aristotle's ideas today are being developed in a deep and humanistic psychology and developmental psychology.

Социально-политические взгляды Платона и Аристотеля в контексте современных представлений о природе политической коррупции

The paper aims to reveal discrepancy of two basic approaches to defining corruption - contextualism and moralism. The study is based on comparing the ancient Greek philosophers’ views on corruption. The article analyses philosophical systems of Ancient Greece taking into account modern understanding of corruption. Scientific originality of the research involves justifying the thesis that in the ancient Greek thinkers’ works, any political regime is apriori considered corrupt, and supremacy of law is considered not as non-corruption in the government but as a practical means to prevent corrupt behaviour of power holders responsible for making national-scale decisions. As a result, the researcher concludes that the ancient Greek philosophers’ views are not in tune with moral absolutism, the prevailing tone of modern discussions on corruption.

Studiul dreptului în școlile Romei antice

As the only legal rules known in the Roman Kingdom were the archaic fas, Roman education from monarchy was an education suitable for traditional people, instilling in youth the respect for the customs of the ancestors. Moreover, because Roman civilization did not develop autonomously, it assimilated the structures and techniques of the much more evolved Hellenistic one. Therefore, Roman legal education system was based on the Greek thinking and, under certain aspects, it was created from the desire of citizens to have a Law education. If at the beginning of the Republic we observe an informal legal education system, with the beginning of the Empire, this field changed gradually, finding a final form in the Dominate.

آراء المثقفين الدعاة حول طبيعة النشئ (دراسة دعوية بين الفکر الإسلامي واليوناني)

إن الناظر في تعاليم الإسلام وشرائعه، يظهر له جليا أنها جاءت لمصلحة البشر وسعادتهم، وتکوين مجتمع يسود فيه النظام، والمحبة والإلفة، ومن أجل هذه التعاليم التي حث عليها الإسلام المحافظة على النسل وهو کنز من الکنوز حيث انه من الکليات الخمس إذ بالمحافظة عليه من جانب الوجود ومن جانب العدم تتم المحافظة النفس التي تلي الدين مباشرة. ويهدف البحث ليلقي الضوء على آراء المثقفين الدعاة حول طبيعة النشئ (دراسة دعوية بين الفکر الإسلامي واليوناني). حيث تناول البحث تحليل بين الفکر اليوناني والإسلامي في حول طبيعة النشئ ، کما تناول البحث آراء المثقفين اليونان في کل من أثينا واسبارطا، ثم تناول البحث الفطرة في القران الکريم والسنة وآراء الدعة المسلمين الإمام الغزالي أنموذجا، کما تناول تعريف النشئ عند علماء الشريعة الإسلامية، والإجتماع وعلماء علم النفس، والقوانين الوضعية المعاصرة. لقد استخدم الباحث في هذه الدراسة المنهج الوصفي التحليلي، وذلک بعرض المعلومات التي تتصل بآراء المثقفين حول طبيعة النشئ، وتحليلها وفق ما يحقق أهداف البحث. جاء هذا البحث في أربعة مباحث کما يلي: المبحث الأول: آراء المثقفين اليونان حول طبيعة النشئ. المبحث الثاني: آراء المثقفين الدعاة من المسلمين حول طبيعة النشئ. المبحث الثالث: آراء المثقفين الدعاة حول طبيعة النشئ الإمام الغزالي أنموذجا. والباحث في هذا البحث أراد أن يسلط الضوء على هذا الموضوع لأهمية الثقافة والآراء المتزايدة يوما بعدآخر بتطور الحاجة إلى تثقيف النشئ. بناء على ما ماخلص إليه البحث يوصي الباحث بضرورة إستخدام أحدث الوسائل الثقافية التي من شأنها تنشئة طفل سوي ومستقر، والعناية بالثقافة العلمية والتأکد من ضرورة شرح آراء المثقفين بأساليب شيقة وجذابة بطريقة من شأنها الإسهام في تنزيل هذه الآراء على أرض الواقع المعاش. Abstract The observer of the teachings of Islam and its laws clearly shows that it is in the interest of people and their happiness, and the formation of a society in which rule prevails, love and intimacy, and for these teachings, which Islam urged to preserve the offspring is a treasure of treasures as it is one of the five colleges, Presence On the one hand, self-preservation is immediately followed by religion. In this study, the researcher used the descriptive analytical method by presenting information related to the views of the educators about the nature of the child and analyzing them according to the objectives of the research. This research came in four sections as follows: The first topic: The views of Greek philosophers on the nature of the child. The second topic: the views of Muslim scholars on the nature of the child. The third topic: the educational thought of Muslim scholars Imam al-Ghazali model. The researcher in this research wanted to shed light on the importance of education and the increasing views day by day the need for child rearing develops. Based on the findings of the research, the researcher recommends the use of the latest educational means that will raise a stable and stable child, and take care of scientific education and ensure the need to explain the views of educators in interesting and attractive ways that would contribute to download these views on the ground reality pension. Keywords: Intellectuals, Preachers, Nature of The Establishment, Islamic Thought, Greek Thought.

THE CONCEPT OF JUSTICE IN REFERENCE WITH PHILOSOPHIES OF PLATO AND ARISTOTLE: A CRITICAL STUDY

The concept of justice has been a constant issue since its conception. The Greeks also attempted to define justice. They have observed justice as goodness in deeds and so a virtue. In the Greek mind, fairness was an attribute of the spirit or soul, while injustice was a sin. Both Plato and Aristotle defined justice as kindness as well as a desire to follow the law. It alluded to the connection between rights and duties. In human interactions, justice was the pinnacle of excellence and the attitude that animates folks in the right fulfillment of their responsibilities. The development of harmony and peace in thinking and conduct was pre-eminently social. In the same way, Aristotle's and Plato's fairness are complementary; both philosophers seek to discover a concept of ability by which unity, harmony, virtue, and pleasure may be produced in a community. Despite this shared agreement, they are fundamentally different in many ways. In this paper, an attempt has been made by the author to discuss the similarities and dissimilarities in theories of justice propounded by Plato and Aristotle.

MacNeice the Heraclitean

Many of the poems and essays of Louis MacNeice display a knowledge of the philosophical theories he studied during his undergraduate years in Merton College, Oxford. In his "Variation on Heraclitus" and in several other poems, MacNeice alludes to the "doctrine of flux" that Plato attributed to the Greek thinker Heraclitus of Ephesus. Though the view of Heraclitus as the champion of flux is controversial, it provided MacNeice with a framework within which to reflect on the conditions essential to living a free and productive life.

The Function of Cynicism at the Present Time by Helen Small

Reviewed by: The Function of Cynicism at the Present Time by Helen Small Jeffrey R. Di Leo Helen Small. The Function of Cynicism at the Present Time Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020. xvi + 264 pp. Few ancient Greek thinkers were as colorful or memorable as Diogenes of Sinope—and perhaps no philosophical school from the period is as historically important to understanding contemporary neoliberal culture and society than Cynicism, the one with which his work is associated. As there are no extant writings by Diogenes, much of what has been attributed to him comes from Diogenes Laertius' Lives and Opinions of Famous Philosophers, which is itself a collection of literary and oral traditions, and from literary representations by ancient writers such as Lucian and Dio Crysostom. Moreover, for all of its historical and continuing significance, there is both no extant treatise by anyone directly associated with ancient Cynicism and no record from antiquity that systemizes Cynic thought. Cynicism and the Cynics, which in Greek (kynikos) literally means "dog-like," took their name from "Cynosarges," the building in ancient Athens that housed the school, one that flourished for about a thousand years, from roughly the fifth century before the common era to the fifth century of the common era. Cynicism generally contends that anything that disturbs the austere independence of the will is harmful and should be avoided. The Cynics either ignored or despised both the conventions of society and material possessions—behavior which provoked opposition from both Greek and Roman society. The cynicism of Diogenes might be characterized as follows: (1) There is an ethical standard established by nature that is observable in animals and through cross-cultural comparison inferable to humans; (2) The most fundamental values of society including those of ethics, politics, and religion are at odds with achieving an ethical life because society is at odds with nature; (3) The rigorous discipline (askesis) of corporeal training and exemplary acts is required for humans to realize happiness and their nature because askesis prepares humans to live in the natural conditions of life; (4) The aim of askesis is freedom, self-sufficiency, and happiness in life; and (5) Provocative acts of free speech and the defacement of tradition through parody and satire aimed at subverting established authority exemplify the freedom of the Cynic (Schreier 40; Branham et al. 8–9). Regarding the subversion of established authority, Diogenes is infamously said to have told Alexander the [End Page 370] Great to "Stand out of my light" when the leader of the Greeks offered to grant him one wish while he was sunning himself in the Craneum (Diogenes Laertius 137). Michel Foucault can be credited with a revival of critical interest in the Cynics and Cynicism through his public lectures and later philosophy. In his last public lectures at the Collège of France, for example, held from February to March of 1984, he speaks extensively about the Cynics and their view of life. Of particular note is his commentary on the Greek sources of care (epimeleia) of self, which he regards as beginning in Plato's Laches, a Socratic dialogue where bios appears more the object of care than the soul. For Foucault, Cynicism is the first example of a philosophical practice centered upon the theme of bios as the object of care. But his interest in Cynicism is not merely because of its emphasis on care of self, rather than care of soul—a dominant topic of his later philosophy. It is also because of its emphasis on parrhesia, that is, truth-telling. For Foucault, in Cynicism we find "the requirement of an extremely distinctive form of life—with very characteristic, well defined rules, conditions, or modes—is strongly connected to the principle of truth-telling, of truth-telling which pushes its courage and boldness to the point that it becomes intolerable insolence" (Foucault 165). What is all the more remarkable for Foucault is that the connection between living a certain way and dedication to truth-telling is achieved by the Cynics without the development of a formal system of philosophy, that is to say, "within a fairly rudimentary theoretical framework" (165). Consequently, Foucault regards Cynicism as a form...